Laser Welding of Metallic Materials

Journal Name	Impact Factor	CiteScore	Launched Year	First Decision (median)	APC
Alloys alloys	-	-	2022	19.4 Days	CHF 1000
Compounds compounds	-	2.3	2021	40.1 Days	CHF 1000
Materials materials	3.1	5.8	2008	15.5 Days	CHF 2600
Metals metals	2.6	4.9	2011	16.5 Days	CHF 2600
Nanomaterials nanomaterials	4.4	8.5	2010	13.8 Days	CHF 2900

15 pages, 5753 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Research on Ultrasonic Vibration Amplitudes in Ti6Al4V DED Additive Manufacturing

by Wei Liu, Zhenchao Zhang, Suli Li and Chao Xu

Alloys 2023, 2(4), 256-270; https://doi.org/10.3390/alloys2040018 - 19 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1594

Ultrasonic-assisted Ti6Al4V Directed Energy Deposition (DED) additive manufacturing technology can improve the problem of uneven microstructure caused by laser heating and sudden cooling of the molten pool. In this paper, the numerical analysis and experimental verification methods were adopted. The influencing factors, such [...] Read more.

Ultrasonic-assisted Ti6Al4V Directed Energy Deposition (DED) additive manufacturing technology can improve the problem of uneven microstructure caused by laser heating and sudden cooling of the molten pool. In this paper, the numerical analysis and experimental verification methods were adopted. The influencing factors, such as the cavitations’ effect, sound flow enhancement effect, and sound flow thermal effect related to the ultrasonic assistance in the molten pool, were analyzed. After equating the energy of the ultrasound, the model of additive manufacturing was introduced in the form of a heat source. The temperature gradient changes during the solidification process of the molten pool with the addition of ultrasound assistance and the effect of ultrasonic vibration during the manufacturing process on its deposited state and microstructure of solution-aged formed parts were studied. The results showed that when the wire feeding rate is 5 mm/s and the laser scanning speed is 5 mm/s, the optimal laser power is 1000 W~1100 W, corresponding to the optimal ultrasonic amplitude of 120 μm. Then, by comparing the temperature field with the same amplitude of 0 μm (i.e., no ultrasonic vibration) and the microstructure of the formed parts, it was verified that ultrasonic vibration facilitates fluid flow in the molten pool, which could lead to a more uniform temperature distribution. This optimized approach not only enhances the understanding of the process but also contributes significantly to the advancement of related research endeavors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Laser Welding of Metallic Materials)

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15 pages, 7413 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Component Evaporation and Uneven Aluminum Distribution during High-Power Vacuum Laser Welding of Ti-6Al-4V Titanium Alloy

by Bingqi Wang, Shuaifeng Zhang, Xinyue Tan, Yifan Lv, Lvjie Liang, Zhiqian Liao and Anguo Huang

Metals 2023, 13(7), 1196; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13071196 - 28 Jun 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1346

Abstract

Titanium alloy is an important material for the manufacture of key components of deep-sea submersibles. High-power vacuum laser welding is an important method for welding TC4 thick plate (40–120 mm) structures. However, due to the low melting point of aluminum, its uneven distribution [...] Read more.

Titanium alloy is an important material for the manufacture of key components of deep-sea submersibles. High-power vacuum laser welding is an important method for welding TC4 thick plate (40–120 mm) structures. However, due to the low melting point of aluminum, its uneven distribution in the weld caused by evaporation during welding affects the quality of joints. This paper conducted experimental and simulation studies to investigate the effect of process parameters on multi-component evaporation and uneven aluminum distribution. Based on a three-dimensional model of vacuum laser welding, the mechanism of the uneven distribution of aluminum in the weld is explained. The results show that the uneven distribution of aluminum in the weld is mainly related to the metal vapor behavior and keyhole morphology. As the welding speed rises from 1 m/min to 3 m/min, the proportion of aluminum in the metal vapor and the degree of compositional unevenness increase. When the laser power increases from 6 kW to 18 kW, the proportion of aluminum in the metal vapor and degree of unevenness increase, peak at 12 kW, and then decrease. This work facilitates the selection of suitable process parameters to reduce aluminum evaporation during the high-power vacuum welding of Ti-6Al-4V alloys. Joints with a more stable performance can be obtained by avoiding the uneven distribution of aluminum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Laser Welding of Metallic Materials)

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13 pages, 4985 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Laser-Welded Joints between DP590 Dual-Phase Steel and 304 Stainless Steel with Preset Nickel Coating

by Hua Zhang, Jiahui Xu, Desheng Hao and Othman Mohammed Ali Othman Esmail

Materials 2023, 16(7), 2774; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16072774 - 30 Mar 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1842

Abstract

Dissimilarities in metal laser welding lead to brittleness in welded joints due to differences in the thermophysical and chemical properties between dissimilar base materials. To overcome such brittleness, the addition of a preset coating onto the base materials as an interlayer is a [...] Read more.

Dissimilarities in metal laser welding lead to brittleness in welded joints due to differences in the thermophysical and chemical properties between dissimilar base materials. To overcome such brittleness, the addition of a preset coating onto the base materials as an interlayer is a method for attaining reliable welded joints. Nd:YAG laser butt welding of DP590 dual-phase steel and 304 stainless, both with a thickness of 1 mm, was performed with a preset nickel coating as an interlayer using an electroplating process. The relationship between the microstructure and the mechanical properties of the welded joints was researched, the microstructure and composition of the weldment were analyzed, and the microhardness, tensile strength and corrosion resistance were tested. The results showed that the preset nickel coating increased the content of Ni element in the welded joints, which is beneficial to the formation of lath martensite. The average hardness of the welded joints increased by 12%, and the tensile strength was higher than 370 MPa. The corrosion rate of the welded joints can be slowed down, and the corrosion resistance can be improved by increasing the nickel coating. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Laser Welding of Metallic Materials)

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15 pages, 10255 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Research and Numerical Simulation of Laser Welding of 303Cu/440C-Nb Stainless-Steel Thin-Walled Natural-Gas Injector for Vehicles

by Lisen Zhou, Dongya Li, Chonghai Xu, Zhaoxing Zheng and Yu Liu

Materials 2023, 16(5), 2109; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16052109 - 5 Mar 2023

Viewed by 2172

Abstract

This paper presents the results of research on laser lap welding technology of heterogeneous materials and a laser post-heat treatment method to enhance welding performance. The purpose of this study is to reveal the welding principle of austenitic/martensitic dissimilar stainless-steel materials (3030Cu/440C-Nb) and [...] Read more.

This paper presents the results of research on laser lap welding technology of heterogeneous materials and a laser post-heat treatment method to enhance welding performance. The purpose of this study is to reveal the welding principle of austenitic/martensitic dissimilar stainless-steel materials (3030Cu/440C-Nb) and to further obtain welded joints with good mechanical and sealing properties. A natural-gas injector valve is taken as the study case where its valve pipe (303Cu) and valve seat (440C-Nb) are welded. Experiments and numerical simulations were conducted where the welded joints’ temperature and stress fields, microstructure, element distribution, and microhardness were studied. The results showed that the residual equivalent stresses and uneven fusion zone tend to concentrate at the joint of two materials within the welded joint. The hardness of the 303Cu side (181.8 HV) is less than the 440C-Nb side (266 HV) in the center of the welded joint. The laser post-heat treatment can reduce the residual equivalent stress in the welded joint and improve the mechanical and sealing properties. The results of the press-off force test and the helium leakage test showed that the press-off force increased from 9640 N to 10,046 N and the helium leakage rate decreased from 3.34 × 10⁻⁴ to 3.96 × 10⁻⁶. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Laser Welding of Metallic Materials)

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16 pages, 9090 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of the Laser Beam Welding of Galvanized Car Body Steel with an Additional Organic Protective Layer

by Jacek Górka, Wojciech Suder, Monika Kciuk and Sebastian Stano

Materials 2023, 16(2), 670; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16020670 - 10 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2040

Abstract

This study discusses the effect of laser beam welding parameters on the structure, mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of 1.2 mm thick galvanized sheets made of low-carbon steel DC04 provided with a ZE36/36 GardoprotectOC2BU organic coating. The test laser beam butt welded joints [...] Read more.

This study discusses the effect of laser beam welding parameters on the structure, mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of 1.2 mm thick galvanized sheets made of low-carbon steel DC04 provided with a ZE36/36 GardoprotectOC2BU organic coating. The test laser beam butt welded joints were made without the filler metal, using a variable welding rate, where linear welding energy was restricted within the range of 30 J/mm to 90 J/mm. The joints were subjected to non-destructive tests, destructive tests and corrosion resistance tests. The tests revealed the possibility of making joints meeting the criteria specified in the ISO 15614-11 standard. Regardless of the value of linear welding energy applied in the process, all the joints were characterised by high mechanical and plastic properties. It was noticed that an increase in linear welding energy from 30 J/mm to 90 J/mm was accompanied by the widening of the weld and that of the heat-affected zone (HAZ). In addition, an increase in linear welding energy was accompanied by a decrease in the maximum weld hardness to approximately 250 HV0.2. In the HAZ, hardness was restricted within the range of 190 HV0.2 to 230 HV0.2 and decreased along with increasing linear welding energy. In the static tensile test, regardless of the value of linear welding energy, the test specimen ruptured in the base material. In the bend test, regardless of the value of linear welding energy, a bend angle of 180° was obtained without partial tear or scratches; unit elongation was restricted within the range of 29% to 42%. The electrochemical tests and experiments performed in the salt spray chamber revealed the very high effectiveness of the corrosion protections against aggressive chloride ions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Laser Welding of Metallic Materials)

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15 pages, 23925 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Effects of Micro-Shot Peening on the Stress Corrosion Cracking of Austenitic Stainless Steel Welds

by Chia-Ying Kang, Tai-Cheng Chen and Leu-Wen Tsay

Metals 2023, 13(1), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/met13010069 - 26 Dec 2022

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2093

Abstract

Micro-shot peening on AISI 304 and 316 stainless steel (SS) laser welds was performed to evaluate its effect on the susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in a salt spray containing 10% NaCl at 80 °C. The cracking susceptibility of the welds was [...] Read more.

Micro-shot peening on AISI 304 and 316 stainless steel (SS) laser welds was performed to evaluate its effect on the susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in a salt spray containing 10% NaCl at 80 °C. The cracking susceptibility of the welds was disclosed by testing U-bend specimens in a salt spray. Micro-shot peening caused an intense but narrow deformed layer with a nanocrystal structure and residual compressive stress. Austenite to martensite transformation occurred heavily on the top surface of the micro-shot peened welds. SCC microcracks were more likely to be initiated at the fusion boundary (FB) of the non-peened welds. However, fine pits were formed more easily on the micro-shot peened 304 fusion zone (FZ), which was attributed to the extensive formation of strain-induced martensite. The nanograined structure and induced residual compressive stress in the micro-shot peened layer suppressed microcrack initiation in the 304 and 316 welds in a salt spray. Compared with the other zones in the welds in a salt spray, the high local strain at the FB was the cause of the high cracking susceptibility and could be mitigated by the micro-shot peening treatment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Laser Welding of Metallic Materials)

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16 pages, 1023 KiB

Open AccessReview

Quality Assessment of Laser Welding Dual Phase Steels

by Eva S. V. Marques, António B. Pereira and Francisco J. G. Silva

Metals 2022, 12(8), 1253; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12081253 - 26 Jul 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1976

Abstract

Since non-conforming parts create waste for industry, generating undesirable costs, it is necessary to set up quality plans that not only guarantee product conformity but also cut the root causes of welding defects by developing the concept of quality at origin. Due to [...] Read more.

Since non-conforming parts create waste for industry, generating undesirable costs, it is necessary to set up quality plans that not only guarantee product conformity but also cut the root causes of welding defects by developing the concept of quality at origin. Due to their increasing use in automotive industry, dual phase (DP) steels have been the chosen material for this study. A quality plan for welding DP steel components by laser was developed. This plan is divided into three parts: pre-welding, during and post-welding. A quality assessment regarding mechanical properties, such as hardness, microstructure and tensile strength, was also performed. It was revealed that DP steel does not present considerable weldability problems, except for the usual softening of the heat affected zone (HAZ) and the growth of martensite in the fusion zone (FZ), and the best analysis techniques to avoid failures in these steels are finite element method (FEM), visual techniques during welding procedure and digital image correlation (DIC) for post-weld analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Laser Welding of Metallic Materials)

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13 pages, 17623 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Different Welding Parameters on the Morphology, Microstructure, and Mechanical Properties of 780 Duplex-Phase Steel Laser Lap Welded Joint

by Shuwan Cui, Shuwen Pang, Suojun Zhang, Yong Liao and Hongfeng Cai

Materials 2022, 15(10), 3627; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15103627 - 19 May 2022

Viewed by 1644

Abstract

This paper attempted to establish a relationship between the morphology, microstructure and mechanical properties of a laser lap welded joint (WJ) of 780 duplex-phase (DP) steel under different welding parameters. The experimental results showed that the microstructure of the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of [...] Read more.

This paper attempted to establish a relationship between the morphology, microstructure and mechanical properties of a laser lap welded joint (WJ) of 780 duplex-phase (DP) steel under different welding parameters. The experimental results showed that the microstructure of the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of all the WJs were tempered martensite and equiaxed ferrite. The microstructure at the fusion zone (FZ) in all the WJs was dominated by lath martensite and ferrite, and the grain size of the FZ was larger than that in the base materials (BMs). The mechanical properties of the welded joints were tested by a universal testing machine, and the changing law of lap tensile resistance with the laser-welding parameters was analyzed. The results show that there was a linear relationship between the width of the weld and the tensile-shear forces of the weld, and the penetration of the weld had no obvious effect on the tensile-shear forces of the weld. A binary linear-regression equation was established to reveal the degree of influence of welding speed and laser power on the mechanical properties of WJs. It was found that the laser power had a greater influence on the mechanical properties of WJs than the welding speed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Laser Welding of Metallic Materials)

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20 pages, 8671 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Growth Behavior for Intermetallic Compounds at the Interface of Aluminum-Steel Weld Joint

by Xiaoquan Yu, Jiankang Huang, Tao Yang and Ding Fan

Materials 2022, 15(10), 3563; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15103563 - 16 May 2022

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2021

Abstract

In this work, the microstructure and growth behavior of Al-Fe intermetallic compounds (IMCs), which formed at interface of weld steel-aluminum joint, are successfully analyzed via the combination of experiment and physical model. A layer IMCs consists of Fe₂Al₅ and Fe [...] Read more.

In this work, the microstructure and growth behavior of Al-Fe intermetallic compounds (IMCs), which formed at interface of weld steel-aluminum joint, are successfully analyzed via the combination of experiment and physical model. A layer IMCs consists of Fe₂Al₅ and Fe₄Al₁₃, in which the Fe₂Al₅ is the main compound in the layer. The IMCs layer thickness increases with the increase of the heat input and the maximum thickness of IMCs layer is 22 ± 2 μm. The high vacancy concentration of Fe₂Al₅ IMCs provides the diffusion path for Al atoms to migrate through the IMCs layer for growing towards to steel substrate. By using the calculated temperature profiles as inputs, the combined 2D cellular automata (CA)-Monte Carlo (MC) model is applied to simulate the grain distribution and interfacial morphology evolution at the Al-steel interface. This 2D model simulates the IMCs nucleation, growth, and solute redistribution. The numerical results are in good agreement with the experimental results, suggesting that the growth process can be divided four stages, and the thickness of the Fe₂Al₅ layer increases nonlinearly with the increase of the growth time. The whole nucleation and growth process experienced 1.7~2 s, and the fastest growth rate is 8 μm/s. The addition of Si element will influence diffusion path of Al atom to form different interface morphology. The effects of peak temperature, cooling time, and the thermal gradient on the IMCs thickness are discussed. It shows that the peak temperature has the major influence on the IMCs thickness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Laser Welding of Metallic Materials)

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17 pages, 5976 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Weldability of Molybdenum–Rhenium Alloy Based on a Single-Mode Fiber Laser

by Liang-Liang Zhang, Lin-Jie Zhang and Qing-Jie Yang

Metals 2022, 12(5), 841; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12050841 - 13 May 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3097

Abstract

Due to its high thermal conductivity and favorable machinability, molybdenum–rhenium (Mo–Re) alloys have huge prospects in the field of high-temperature heat pipes. However, the weldability of Mo–Re alloys has not yet been systematically investigated. Based on an orthogonal test, the influence law of [...] Read more.

Due to its high thermal conductivity and favorable machinability, molybdenum–rhenium (Mo–Re) alloys have huge prospects in the field of high-temperature heat pipes. However, the weldability of Mo–Re alloys has not yet been systematically investigated. Based on an orthogonal test, the influence law of the single-mode fiber laser welding parameters on the weld profile and the mechanical properties of the joints was studied. Furthermore, the existence mode and the distribution law of Re in the fusion zone (FZ) were explored using X-ray photoelectron spectrometer (XPS) and the electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) system. The results showed that weld penetration and width are most significantly influenced by power, and that these increased with increasing power. The tensile strength of the Mo–Re alloy joints reached 250 MPa, and no obvious hardening was found in the FZ. Re in the FZ also appeared as ReO₂, ReO₃, and ReC, apart from the atomic state. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Laser Welding of Metallic Materials)

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9 pages, 3645 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Forming Mechanism of Weld Cross Section and Validating Thermal Analysis Results Based on the Maximal Temperature Field for Laser Welding

by Youmin Rong and Jiajun Xu

Metals 2022, 12(5), 774; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12050774 - 30 Apr 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1655

Abstract

In this paper, the forming mechanism of weld cross sections (WCSs) was studied via thermal analysis. The melting of a WCS was first dominated by heat convection from the flowing melt until the WCS had the max cross section in the transient temperature [...] Read more.

In this paper, the forming mechanism of weld cross sections (WCSs) was studied via thermal analysis. The melting of a WCS was first dominated by heat convection from the flowing melt until the WCS had the max cross section in the transient temperature field. Then, the melting was dominated by heat conduction from the residual heat in the weld pool, giving rise to an increase in middle width but a decrease in upper and bottom width. This indicated that the WCS obtained from the transient temperature field could not represent the section after solidification. Therefore, thermal analysis results should be validated using the WCS obtained from the maximal temperature field. This WCS was dependent upon the max temperature of each node over time. Compared with the former WCS, the latter one showed better adaptability in terms of multi-process parameters when the thermal analysis results were validated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Laser Welding of Metallic Materials)

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16 pages, 2965 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fatigue Performance of Laser Welds in Heavy-Gage Press Hardening Steels

by Diego Tolotti de Almeida, Kleber Eduardo Bianchi, João Henrique Corrêa de Souza, Milton Sergio Fernandes de Lima, Thomas Gabriel Rosauro Clarke, Fabio Pinto da Silva and Hardy Mohrbacher

Metals 2022, 12(4), 580; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12040580 - 29 Mar 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2185

Abstract

This work investigates and compares the fatigue performance of laser-welded joints of two press hardening steels: a standard 22MnB5 and a variant modified by a combination of niobium and molybdenum (NbMo) alloying. The results indicate that joint geometry aspects, superposed to an intrusion-generated [...] Read more.

This work investigates and compares the fatigue performance of laser-welded joints of two press hardening steels: a standard 22MnB5 and a variant modified by a combination of niobium and molybdenum (NbMo) alloying. The results indicate that joint geometry aspects, superposed to an intrusion-generated damage mechanism, were prevalent in causing a poor fatigue life in the case of peak stress values greater than 11% of the base metal's ultimate strength being around 1450 MPa. As identical process procedures were employed, the tests allowed investigating the influence of the alloy design on fatigue performance. The results of geometrical analysis and fatigue tests indicated that the NbMo modified alloy performed better than the standard 22MnB5 steel. The results also suggest that, if extremely tight quality limits are used in the manufacturing procedures, laser-welded joints of press hardened steels could offer a very favorable fatigue performance being considerably better than that of conventional and high strength structural steels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Laser Welding of Metallic Materials)

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