Search Results (241)

Centella asiatica (C. asiatica) has attracted significant scientific interest due to its extensive medicinal properties and long-established use in traditional medicine. This review synthesizes recent advances in the technological exploitation of C. asiatica, covering the extraction of bioactive constituents to product development. Modern extraction techniques such as supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) have substantially improved the yield, selectivity, and preservation of key phytochemicals, particularly triterpenoids, saponins, and flavonoids. These compounds are now routinely characterized using advanced analytical platforms, ensuring product quality, consistency, and standardization. Moreover, the use of innovative formulation technologies and advanced delivery systems has facilitated the development of C. asiatica-based products tailored for various therapeutic areas, including pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, and cosmeceuticals targeting neuroprotection, wound healing, skin aging, and stress modulation. Alongside these developments, stringent quality control protocols, toxicological evaluations, and adherence to evolving regulatory standards enhance the safety and efficacy of C. asiatica-derived interventions. This review highlights the integration of traditional knowledge with modern science across the domains of extraction, analysis, formulation, and regulation. It serves as a comprehensive resource for researchers, formulators, and regulatory stakeholders aiming to develop high-quality, evidence-based C. asiatica products with improved bioavailability and therapeutic value. Full article

Objective: Our objective was to explore the regulatory mechanism of salt processing on the metabolome of the raspberry and its potential efficacy against diabetic nephropathy (DN), providing metabolomic and network pharmacological evidence for the scientific connotation of traditional Chinese medicine processing. Methods: Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS)-based metabolomics was used to compare the metabolic profiles between raw and salt-processed raspberries. Network pharmacology was applied to screen the common targets of the active components in the salt-processed raspberry and DN-related pathways, followed by in vitro cell experiments to validate the regulation of the MAPK signaling pathway. Results: The metabolomic analysis identified 80 differentially expressed metabolites, among which 13 key components (VIP ≥ 1, FC ≥ 2) were significantly altered, including enriched flavonoids (e.g., luteolin-7-O-glucoside), triterpenoid saponins (Raspberryides H/F), and phenolic acids (ellagic acid). The network pharmacology revealed that the salt-processed raspberries regulated the DN-related pathways through 122 common targets, with the core nodes focusing on the signaling molecules (e.g., AKT1, EGFR) involved in the MAPK signaling pathway and apoptosis regulation. The in vitro experiments confirmed that the salt-processed raspberry extract (160–640 μg/mL) significantly inhibited the phosphorylation levels of p38/ERK/JNK in high-glucose-induced renal cells. Conclusions: This study firstly combines metabolomics and network pharmacology to reveal the regulatory mechanism of salt processing on the active components of raspberries. The salt-processing technology enhanced the inhibitory effect of raspberries on the MAPK signaling pathway, thereby ameliorating the progression of DN. These findings provide scientific support for establishing a metabolomics-based quality control system for traditional Chinese medicine processing. The current findings are primarily based on in vitro models, and in vivo validation using DN animal models is essential to confirm the therapeutic efficacy and safety of salt-processed raspberries. Full article

Bluehead gilia or bluefield gilia (Gilia capitata Sims, Polemoniaceae) is an annual herbaceous plant widely distributed in the western regions of North America but cultivated as an ornamental flower in various regions to support pollinators. The comprehensive chemical composition of this plant has not been previously reported. Essential oils (EOs) were obtained by hydrodistillation from different parts of the gilia plants. The yield of EOs ranged from 0.42 to 1.97 mL/kg, with the largest yields being obtained from the seeds; smaller yields obtained from the flowers, fruits, and leaves; and the lowest quantity obtained from the stems, roots, and shells. Using the GC-MS method, we identified 116 compounds. Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone was dominant in most parts of the G. capitata. The EO of flowers was dominated by hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (19.1%), fruits by hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (18.2%), seeds by hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (15.2%), fruit by (+)-epi-bicyclosesquiphellandrene (15.4%), leaves by phytol (23.3%), stems by isomanool (8.3%), and roots by (-)-myrtenol (25.7%). Triterpenoid saponins were identified, and 21 compounds were quantified (by HPLC). Saponin levels were high in aerial parts (excluding stems) and the lowest in plant roots. Based on the contents of EO and saponins, the aerial parts of G. capitata may have pharmaceutical properties, but saponins might be the main value of G. capitata. Full article

The genus Clinopodium L. (Lamiaceae) comprises perennial herbaceous plants known for their diverse pharmacological properties. Clinically, these plants are mainly used for the treatment of various hemorrhagic disorders. This review systematically summarizes the research progress on the chemical composition, pharmacological activity, quality control, toxicity, and pharmacokinetics of the genus Clinopodium by searching Google Scholar, Scopus-Elsevier, Wiley, Springer, Taylor & Francis, Medline, Web of Science, CNKI, Weipu, Wanfang, and other academic databases over the last decade (March 2015–February 2025). To date, more than one hundred and thirty structurally diverse secondary metabolites have been isolated and identified from this genus, including flavonoids, triterpenoid saponins, diterpenoid glycosides, lignans, and phenylpropanoids. In addition, numerous volatile oil constituents have been identified in over forty species of the genus Clinopodium. Crude extracts and purified compounds exhibit a variety of pharmacological activities, including hemostatic, anti-myocardial cell injury, cardiovascular protective, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antitumor, hypoglycemic, and insecticidal properties. However, current quality assessment protocols in the genus Clinopodium are limited to flavonoid- and saponin-based evaluations in C. chinense (Benth.) O. Kuntze and C. gracile (Benth.) O. Matsum. Further research is needed to elucidate the pharmacological mechanisms, toxicity, and possible interactions with other drugs. Therefore, the genus Clinopodium has a wide range of biologically active compounds with potential applications in drug development for hemostasis and cardiovascular protection. Nevertheless, there is also an urgent need to establish standardized methodologies to address uncertainties concerning the safety and efficacy of injectable extracts or compounds. Full article

The expanding field of nutraceuticals and functional food science is increasingly turning to marine-derived bioactive compounds, particularly saponins, for their diverse pharmacological properties. These so-called thalassochemicals display distinctive structural features—such as sulfated glycosidic moieties and amphiphilic backbones—that underpin potent antitumor, hypolipidemic, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities. In contrast to their terrestrial analogs, marine saponins remain underexplored, and their complexity poses analytical and functional challenges. This review provides a critical and integrative synthesis of recent advances in the structural elucidation, biological function, and technological application of marine saponins. Special emphasis is placed on the unresolved limitations in their isolation, characterization, and structural validation, including coelution of isomers, adduct formation in MS spectra, and lack of orthogonal techniques such as NMR or FTIR. We illustrate these limitations through original MS/MS data and propose experimental workflows to improve compound purity and identification fidelity. In addition to discussing known structure–activity relationships (SARs) and mechanisms of action, we extend the scope by integrating recent developments in computational modeling, including machine learning, molecular descriptors, and quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR) models. These tools offer new avenues for predicting saponin bioactivity, despite current limitations in available high-quality datasets. Furthermore, we include a classification and comparison of steroidal and triterpenoid saponins from marine versus terrestrial sources, complemented by detailed chemical schematics. We also address the impact of processing techniques, delivery systems, and bioavailability enhancements using encapsulation and nanocarriers. Finally, this review contextualizes these findings within the regulatory and sustainability frameworks that shape the future of saponin commercialization. By bridging analytical chemistry, computational biology, and food technology, this work establishes a roadmap for the targeted development of marine saponins as next-generation nutraceuticals and functional food ingredients. Full article

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) saponins (AS), primarily pentacyclic triterpenoids, may reduce methane emissions from goats (Capra hircus L.). This study evaluated the methane-suppressing potential of Aspergillus niger β-glucosidase-modified AS using in vitro rumen fermentation (0.10 mg/mL inoculum, 24 h incubation, gas chromatography detection). Among the 21 alfalfa cultivars, Pegasis (fall dormancy 9) exhibited the highest antioxidant efficacy (half maximum effective concentration 2.13 mg/mL) and the lowest ferric-reducing activity (0.32 μM Fe²⁺/g) (p < 0.05). Fresh/silage AS reduced methane proportions to 4.50–5.21% of total gas, while enzymatic biotransformation further decreased it to 3.34–3.48% (p < 0.05). Methanogen abundance declined by 20.10–44.93%, and general anaerobic fungi declined by 34.22–44.66% compared to untreated AS (p < 0.05). Metabolomics linked methane suppression to six pathways, including zeatin biosynthesis (via nucleotide metabolites accumulation) and prolactin signaling pathway (via bioactive molecules downregulation), suggesting impaired methanogen energy metabolism and hydrogen flux redirection as mechanisms. Enzymatic AS also enhanced volatile fatty acid production, indicating improved fiber digestion. These in vitro findings demonstrate that enzyme-treated AS modulates rumen fermentation through dual methane mitigation and nutrient utilization enhancement, offering a sustainable feed additive strategy for livestock. Full article

Uridine diphosphate glycosyltransferase (UGT) is a core protein for glycosylation of plant natural products and other small molecules. Although many studies on functional identification of UGTs are now available, analysis of UGTs in Platycodon grandiflorus is still relatively scarce. We identified 107 PgUGTs genome-wide from P. grandiflorus and investigated their phylogenetic relationships, chromosomal localisation, collinearity, cis-regulatory elements, motifs, domains, and gene structures. PgUGT29 and PgUGT72 were two putative glycosyltransferases for platycodins biosynthesis in P. grandiflorus according to our previous study and bioinfornatical analyses. In vitro enzyme activity showed that PgUGT29 can catalyse the glycosylation of the C3 position of Platycodin D (PD) to generate Platycodin D3 (PD3), while candidate enzyme PgUGT72 does not function as a glycosyltransferase. Molecular docking indicated that T145, D392, Q393, and N396 may be the crucial residues for PgUGT29 to catalyse the generation of PD3 from UDP-Glc and PD. In this study, we identified and cloned PgUGT29, elucidated its catalytic function in converting PD to PD3, and predicted key residues critical for its enzymatic activity. These findings provide a theoretical foundation and technical framework for future targeted metabolic engineering and directional regulation of medicinal components in Platycodon grandiflorus. Full article

Phytochemical investigation and bioactivity evaluation of terpenoids from the Croton species were conducted. The chemical composition of C. sylvaticus was explored using chemical phytochemical screening techniques and dereplication of ¹³C NMR data using MixONat software (v. 1.0.1). Natural products with diverse structural features were identified in the dichloromethane extract of trunk bark. These include monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, diterpenoids, triterpenoids, along with other minor metabolites, such as steroids, saponins, and fatty acids. Further purification of this extract led to the isolation of three major secondary metabolites, acetyl aleuritolic acid, caryophyllene oxide, and phytol. These secondary metabolites were reported for the first time in C. sylvaticus. The isolated compounds were structurally compared to known anticancer terpenoids previously identified in two other Congolese Croton species. Through molecular docking studies, the predicted binding affinities of the identified compounds were assessed, and possible structure–activity relationships (SAR) were proposed. Two structurally characterized receptors—the human androgen receptor (HAR, PDB ID: 1E3G) and hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α, PDB ID: 3KCX), known for their involvement in cancer-related pathways, were used for molecular docking investigations. Among the tested compounds, 1, 2, 3, and 12 were identified as having strong-to-moderate predicted binding affinities to both protein targets, along with favorable drug-like properties according to the ADMET analysis. This investigation could justify the use of Croton plants in traditional medicine. In addition, our study highlights the potential of the Congolese Croton species as sources of bioactive secondary metabolites. Full article

Civilization diseases are a growing and global health problem in modern societies. Neurological disorders, cancer, and inflammatory diseases affect a large group of patients around the world. Therefore, it is of utmost importance to search for novel drugs, lifestyle tips, and foods that can help restore balance in the living organism, promote the efficiency of the immune system, and provide satisfactory prophylactic measures. Astragaloside IV (ASIV)—a triterpenoid saponin from Astragalus species, one of the world’s most widely used herbs—has been shown to have a variety of biological properties, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor, and neuroprotective effects. In recent years, the number of in vivo studies on this active ingredient in the scientific literature has increased considerably. The aim of this review was therefore to compile the existing knowledge on the use of this compound in the treatment of selected diseases of civilization—cancer, neurological disorders, and inflammatory diseases—in vivo. Full article

The Araliaceae family has significant economic and medicinal value. However, the phylogenetic relationships and the expression patterns of key genes of the active triterpenoid substance within this family are still unclear. In this study, we employed comparative transcriptomics to analyze the transcriptomes of 19 species from 11 genera of Araliaceae, aiming to elucidate the evolutionary history of the family and the expression patterns of key genes in the ginsenoside biosynthesis pathway. Our results divide Araliaceae into two subfamilies: Aralioideae and Hydrocotyloideae. Aralioideae is further classified into three groups: the Aralia–Panax group, the Polyscias–Pseudopanax group, and the Asian Palmate group. PhyloNet analysis reveals that the common ancestor of Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolius, and Panax japonicus was an allopolyploid, likely resulting from hybridization between Panax notoginseng and Panax pseudoginseng. Additionally, all Aralioideae species underwent the pg-β event, which may be critical for ginsenoside biosynthesis. We discovered that Panax species exhibit distinct expression patterns of key enzyme genes (β-AS, DDS, CYP450, UGTs) compared to other Araliaceae species. These enzyme genes show independent evolutionary lineages in gene trees, suggesting unique functional adaptations that enable Panax species to efficiently synthesize ginsenosides. This study provides a theoretical foundation for the conservation and utilization of Araliaceae germplasm resources. Full article

Background/Objectives: Momordica charantia L. (M. charantia), a widely cultivated and frequently consumed medicinal plant, is utilized in traditional medicine. Cucurbitane-type triterpenoids, significant saponin components of M. charantia, exhibit hypoglycemic effects; however, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Methods: This study utilized comprehensive network pharmacology to identify potential components of M. charantia cucurbitane-type triterpenoids that may influence type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Additionally, molecular docking and molecular dynamics studies were performed to assess the stability of the interactions between the selected components and key targets. Results: In total, 22 candidate active components of M. charantia cucurbitane-type triterpenoids and 1165 disease targets for T2DM were identified through database screening. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations were conducted for five key components (Kuguacin J, 25-O-methylkaravilagenin D, Momordicine I, momordic acid, and Kuguacin S) and three key targets (AKT1, IL6, and SRC), and the results demonstrated stable binding. The experimental results indicate that the interactions between momordic acid-AKT1 and momordic acid-IL6 are stable. Conclusions: Momordic acid may play a crucial role in M. charantia’s regulation of T2DM, and AKT1 and IL6 seem to be key targets for the therapeutic action of M. charantia in managing T2DM. Full article

The economically efficient, reproducible cultivation of plants containing valuable ingredients for pharmaceutical or cosmetic purposes is a challenge today. Although greenhouse cultivation is much more expensive than field cultivation, this may be justified by the high level of control over environmental conditions. However, a careful analysis of costs and the investigation of potential cost-reducing measures are essential. Here, soapwort (Saponaria officinalis) was grown in a greenhouse to identify factors influencing the production costs of the pharmaceutically relevant saponin SO1861 in the roots. The plants were grown hydroponically to facilitate harvesting. Three factors were identified as having a significant impact on production costs: the genotype of the plants, the method of propagation, and the type of lighting used in the greenhouse. Commercially available soapwort seeds do not have a defined genetic background. Cost simulations suggest that the cost of producing SO1861 can be significantly reduced by pre-testing plants for SO1861 production capacity, propagating plants from cuttings rather than seeds, and using light-emitting diodes instead of the more traditional high-pressure sodium lamps. The impact of these factors on the total production costs was calculated and discussed. A simplified version of the cost model, which can be used as a blueprint for estimating the costs of any other greenhouse crop, was also included in the supporting data. Full article

Background: Crude extracts are easily available and considered safe and cost-effective in comparison with synthetic extracts and are more accessible compared with purified compounds, making them suitable for initial screening and exploratory studies in drug discovery. Introduction: Cucumis sativus and Cucurbita pepo are medicinal plants that belong to the Cucurbitaceae family, commonly known as cucumber and pumpkin, comprising a series of phytochemicals such as chlorophylls, carotenoids, oleanolic acid, saponin, and triterpenoids. Materials and Methods: In this study, an ethanol extract of Cucumis sativus and Cucurbita pepo whole plants was used to assess their hypoglycemic effects in a fasted, fed, glucose-loaded and streptozotocin-induced diabetes model of albino rats followed by Molecular Spectroscopic (FTIR and UV-Vis) analysis. Blood sugar levels were determined from samples collected at different intervals (0, 1, 3, and 4 h). Results and Conclusions: A significant blood glucose reduction was observed as a result of both plants’ extracts, while the greatest reduction was shown by Cucumis sativus. The UV-Vis profile showed several absorption bands ranging from 200 to 800 nm, showing the presence of flavonoids, phenolic compounds, terpenoids, carotenoids, and chlorophyll. The FTIR spectra reveal the presence of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and phenolic compounds, which contribute to the extracts’ nutritional and biological value. Further research is needed to determine the active agents and the likely mechanism of action of both the plants regarding their hypoglycemic effects. Full article

Glochidion chodoense, a rare and endangered plant endemic to Republic of Korea, is known for containing a wide variety of phytochemicals, including triterpenoid saponins and flavonoids. This study sought to profile the phytochemical composition of the leaves and branches of G. chodoense harvested during three different periods (May, July, and October 2023) using liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization/mass spectrometry (LC-ESI/MS) and high-performance liquid chromatography–photodiode array detection (HPLC/PDA). Plant materials were harvested, authenticated, and subjected to ethanol extraction prior to chemical analysis. LC-ESI/MS and quantitative HPLC/PDA analyses were conducted to identify and quantify nine key phytochemicals: norbergenin (1), bergenin (2), epigallocatechin (3), ethyl gallate (4), orientin (5), epicatechin gallate (6), isovitexin 2″-O-arabinoside (7), ellagic acid (8), and cynaroside (9). Our findings revealed significant seasonal variations in major phytochemicals, with leaves containing higher concentrations than branches. Notably, bergenin (2) showed the highest content in May leaves (43.42 mg/g extract), followed by October (17.60 mg/g extract) and July branches (8.56 mg/g extract). Ethyl gallate (4), which was absent or present in trace amounts in branches, was abundant in leaves, with concentrations of 22.24 mg/g extract in October, 21.75 mg/g extract in May, and 17.48 mg/g extract in July. A similar trend was observed for norbergenin (1). These findings provide valuable insights into the phytochemical composition of G. chodoense, emphasizing its potential applications in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and functional foods, while highlighting the critical importance of conserving this endangered species. Full article

Anemone baicalensis, a plant abundant in Northeast China, has garnered attention for its potential medicinal properties. While its aerial parts (ABAP) have demonstrated significant antioxidant activity, the rhizome (ABR) remains less explored, particularly in comparison to the well-documented Anemones raddeanae Rhizoma, a valuable traditional Chinese medicine. This study investigates the chemical composition and bioactivity of ABR, comparing it with ABAP and evaluating its potential as a substitute for Anemones raddeanae Rhizoma. Phytochemical analyses, including qualitative and quantitative assessments, were conducted on ABR extracts using various solvents. Antioxidant activity was evaluated through multiple assays, and stability studies were performed on methanol and 80% ethanol extracts. UHPLC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS was employed to identify chemical constituents. Acute toxicity and hepatoprotective effects were assessed in vivo using a rat model. The results revealed that ABR and ABAP share nearly half of their chemical components, with ABR containing a higher diversity of triterpenoid saponins. The 80% ethanol extract of ABR exhibited the highest extraction yield, rich in phenolics and triterpenoids, and demonstrated superior antioxidant activity and stability. In vivo studies showed that ABR significantly reduced liver injury markers (ALT, AST, $\gamma$-GT, and MDA), enhanced antioxidant enzyme activity (CAT), and increased albumin concentration, comparable to the effects of Anemones raddeanae Rhizoma. Acute toxicity tests indicated low toxicity, supporting its safety for medicinal use. ABR shows significant potential as a substitute for Anemones raddeanae Rhizoma, particularly due to its rich triterpenoid content and hepatoprotective effects. While ABAP outperforms ABR in terms of antioxidant activity, ABR’s unique chemical profile and liver-protective capabilities highlight its value in drug development. This study provides a scientific foundation for the further exploration of ABR as a sustainable alternative in traditional medicine. Full article