Search Results (269)

Background: Endometriosis and lipedema are chronic female-predominant disorders characterized by persistent pain that is frequently disproportionate to anatomical lesion burden. Although traditionally interpreted within distinct lesion-centered frameworks, both conditions exhibit striking clinical and epidemiological parallels, including hormonally modulated symptom dynamics, overlap with central pain syndromes, weak correlation between structural disease severity and pain intensity, and symptom clustering during reproductive transitions such as puberty, pregnancy, and menopause. Methods: This study aims to synthesize clinical, molecular, neuroimmune, and endocrine evidence on the interrelationship between endometriosis and lipedema, and to propose a hypothesis-generating neuroimmune framework linking both conditions. This integrative narrative review conducted a non-systematic literature search in PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science, focusing on mechanisms related to chronic pain, mast cell biology, TRPV1 signaling, CGRP-mediated neurogenic inflammation, intracrine steroidogenesis, and peripheral and central sensitization. Results: The review identifies convergent biological characteristics between the two diseases, including mast cell activation, macrophage polarization, endothelial dysfunction, fibrosis, angiogenesis, intracrine estrogen metabolism, and persistent inflammatory signaling. In endometriosis, direct evidence demonstrates increased sensory innervation, nerve growth factor expression, TRPV1 sensitization, CGRP-positive fibers, and mast cell-nerve interactions. In lipedema, convergent upstream mechanisms, including mast cell infiltration, elevated histamine levels, adipose tissue inflammation, and local estrogen activation, support the plausibility of a functionally analogous neuroimmune organization, despite incomplete direct neural characterization. In this context, the mast cell-TRPV1-CGRP axis is proposed as a biologically plausible framework, directly supported in endometriosis and currently hypothetical in lipedema, connecting peripheral sensitization, neurogenic inflammation, hormonal chronodependence, and central nociceptive amplification. The model further conceptualizes pain crises as transient events of instability within a sensitized neuroimmune network and proposes mechanistic phenotypes that integrate gastrointestinal, inflammatory, central, and hormonal triggers. Conclusion: Endometriosis and lipedema may represent topographically distinct manifestations of a shared neuroimmune process operating within hormone-sensitive tissues. Although the evidentiary basis remains asymmetric, with stronger mechanistic support in endometriosis than in lipedema, this framework provides a biologically plausible and experimentally testable model integrating endocrine, immune, neural, and vascular contributors to chronic pain amplification. This perspective supports coordinated translational investigation across reproductive biology, endocrinology, and pain medicine and may contribute to future mechanism-based stratification and therapeutic development. This work is hypothesis-generating and is not intended to establish causality or to provide clinical recommendations; all proposed mechanistic and therapeutic inferences require prospective experimental validation. Full article

Background: Sensory processing differences are highly prevalent in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and may shape how they interact with their environment and acquire new knowledge. The present study investigated developmental changes in learning potential and cognitive functioning in preschool children with ASD presenting a sensory seeking profile with typical sensitivity. In addition, the study examined which components of early learning potential predicted intellectual functioning two years later. Methods: A longitudinal design was employed with 44 preschool boys with ASD assessed at ages four and six. The potential for learning through dynamic assessment, intelligence and sensory processing patterns was assessed. Paired sample t-tests were conducted to examine developmental changes, and hierarchical regression analyses were used to identify predictors of intellectual functioning at age six. Results: Significant improvements were observed in general cognitive ability, classification ability, and perspective-taking skills across the two-year period. Regression analyses revealed that visual memory, sequential pattern completion, classification ability, and perspective taking significantly predicted intellectual functioning at age six, jointly explaining 51% of the variance in IQ scores. Conclusions: The findings suggest that visuospatial processing and pattern-based reasoning may play a central role in cognitive development among preschool children with ASD who exhibit active sensory engagement. Full article

Reflectance by yellow to red carotenoid-based plumages in birds with ultraviolet-sensitive (UVS) color vision typically shifts to redder (longer) wavelengths as carotenoid consumption (Diet_c) increases. This apparent asymmetric red-shift response implies an overall bias against conceivable shifts to bluer (shorter) wavelengths. However, recent studies among species of Piciformes–Coraciiformes (e.g., woodpeckers, barbets, toucans, bee-eaters, and allies) with violet-sensitive (VS) color vision discovered two kinds of blue shifts between the same plumage and dietary traits. Compared to UVS absolute red shifts (positive slopes at higher Diet_c), VS express absolute (negative slopes at higher Diet_c for yellow and orange plumages) or relative (zero slope for red plumages) blue shifts. These contrasting patterns for different color vision systems suggest that generalized symmetry concepts of opposite (plumage shift) patterns that maintain invariant (Diet_c, perception) processes can be abstracted from physical to biological systems, with positive versus negative responses formalized as “antisymmetries” and relative responses formalized as “broken symmetries”. A subset of VS “true woodpecker” (Picinae) species with known yellow and red plumage-carotenoid chemistries demonstrated similar blue shifts for the main reflectance bands and their independence from phylogeny, sex, and specimen collection year, thus providing key chemical details to further test generalized plumage symmetries. Juxtapositions were facilitated because both yellow and red plumages in true woodpeckers contained comparatively blue- and red-shifted carotenoid types. Despite this parallel, each plumage deployed chemical variations in radically different ways. Yellow plumage contained only chemically defined yellow carotenoids, including intrinsically more red-shifted natives (i.e., hydroxy-xanthophylls) widespread among birds through their diets, and intrinsically more blue-shifted picofulvins (i.e., 7,8-di- and tetra-hydro-carotenoids) probably characteristic of and metabolized by VS birds. Higher absolute and relative (to natives) picofulvin concentrations were significant predictors of absolute blue shifts in yellow plumage reflectance, and were significantly predicted by higher Diet_c. Transitivity implied Diet_c ⟶ native ⟶ picofulvin ⟶ reflectance, such that picofulvins caused absolute blue shifts at higher Diet_c, and natives caused absolute red shifts at lower Diet_c. Moreover, opposite trends for picofulvin and native concentrations in feathers were consistent with the proposed endogenous synthesis of picofulvins from natives. Yellow plumages comprised mainly of picofulvins at very low (from very low Diet_c from ants and termites) or high (from very high Diet_c from fruits) concentrations were especially distinctive for some of these and other interrelationships, suggesting some heterogeneity in yellow pigmentation strategies from dietary idiosyncrasies. Red plumages contained only relatively low concentrations of yellow dietary natives (hydroxy-xanthophylls), but varied widely in the concentration of metabolites of comparatively intermediate (4-oxo-keto-carotenoids) or extreme (4,4′-oxo-keto-carotenoids) redness. However, different red chemistries lacked any corresponding significant relationships with variations in reflectance or Diet_c. Variations in reflectance based on chemical compositions were more visible to humans for yellow than red plumage types, setting minimum salience levels for the more discriminating diurnal avian color visions. Therefore, VS yellow plumage chemistries that emphasize deposition of easily obtained (cheaper) dietary natives at low Diet_c, and of more deliberately synthesized (costly) picofulvin metabolites at higher Diet_c were consistent with several forms of honest signaling in UVS from resource limitations based on Diet_c, including through potential costs and benefits and their trade-offs. Conversely, the diverse chemical compositions and costs of red plumages of similar physical reflectance properties, and evidence that intrinsically orange carotenoids intermediate between red and yellow ones were actively excluded from plumage, suggested that true woodpecker reds were under selection for a convergent appearance. In light of true woodpecker biology, sensory bias, and social and aposematic mimicry are likely mechanisms promoting resemblance. These results extend to the chemical level earlier interpretations of opposite shift patterns as antisymmetries of invariant processes and relative shift patterns as broken symmetries of altered processes for VS vis-à-vis UVS carotenoid-based systems. Full article

Human spaceflight in microgravity induces profound physiological adaptations, yet its effects on the sensory system remain comparatively underexplored. While musculoskeletal and cardiovascular changes are well documented, sensory alterations pose equally important challenges to astronaut safety, performance, and post-mission recovery. Calcium ions (Ca²⁺), as universal intracellular messengers, play central roles in sensory transduction, neurotransmitter release, and adaptive signaling across all sensory modalities. Emerging evidence suggests that microgravity may influence Ca²⁺ homeostasis and Ca²⁺-dependent cellular processes, potentially affecting the functional integrity of sensory pathways. In this review, we synthesize current findings on the impact of microgravity on Ca²⁺-dependent processes in the five classical senses. Evidence from spaceflight studies, ground-based analogs, and related physiological models suggests possible alterations in taste receptor signaling, Ca²⁺-binding protein expression, mechanotransduction pathways, and vestibular function. However, direct evidence for microgravity-induced disruption of Ca²⁺ signaling remains limited for several sensory modalities. Collectively, these changes are associated with altered taste and smell perception, visual disturbances, reduced tactile sensitivity, and vestibular imbalance. By integrating both direct evidence and mechanistic hypotheses across sensory systems, this review highlights Ca²⁺ signaling as a potential unifying mechanism underlying sensory adaptation to microgravity. We further identify key knowledge gaps and discuss potential directions for developing targeted countermeasures aimed at preserving sensory function during long-duration missions. Beyond spaceflight, these insights contribute to a broader understanding of Ca²⁺-mediated sensory physiology under extreme environmental conditions. Full article

Chronic pain is increasingly understood as a multidimensional condition in which, in a substantial subgroup of patients, a protective symptom can evolve into a persistent maladaptive disorder of the nervous system, while in others it may remain closely tied to ongoing mechanical or structural factors. Central sensitization (CS) represents a key mechanism underlying this transition, characterized by enhanced neural responsiveness and impaired endogenous pain inhibition, leading to a dissociation between pain and tissue pathology. The aim of this narrative review is to critically discuss current evidence on CS as a mechanism-based explanation for persistent pain, using lumbar disk herniation (LDH) as a clinical model of the radiological-clinical mismatch, and to discuss its direct implications for identifying sensitized phenotypes, multimodal assessment, and rehabilitation strategies. A total of 77 sources published between 2006 and 2026 were synthesized. These reviewed sources demonstrate that identification of the sensitized phenotype requires a multimodal assessment approach combining self-report measures, such as the Central Sensitization Inventory (CSI), with psychophysical methods including quantitative sensory testing (QST) and conditioned pain modulation (CPM). Cognitive-emotional factors are also critical, as postoperative kinesiophobia affects approximately 38.3% of LDH patients and is associated with increased pain intensity and reduced self-efficacy. Management strategies reported in these publications focus on mechanism-based interventions, particularly pain neuroscience education (PNE) and graded, time-contingent exercise, which aim to modify pain-related cognitions and restore endogenous inhibitory processes. These approaches may be supported by adjunctive therapies, including dry needling (DN), electro-dry needling (EDN), centrally acting pharmacological agents (e.g., serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors [SNRIs] and gabapentinoids), and psychologically informed treatments such as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). While surgical decompression may reduce CS-related symptoms, preoperative sensitization does not necessarily predict poorer outcomes, highlighting the interaction between peripheral and central mechanisms. Adopting a sensitization-informed perspective may encourage a broader integration of contemporary pain models alongside traditional structural views in lumbar disc herniation clinical care. Full article

This research focused on the formulation of a health-oriented, clean-label food product fortified with encapsulated bioactive compounds from Sambucus nigra, Aronia melanocarpa, and Echinacea purpurea. To evaluate the protection of these sensitive compounds during production and storage, a comprehensive characterization was performed. This included basic physicochemical analyses, phenolic profiling, antioxidant activity tests, as well as rheological and textural measurements. Furthermore, sensory analysis, consumer evaluation, and microbiological stability during storage were assessed. Results from Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analyses confirmed the structural integrity of the capsules post-processing. Additionally, the application of a starch–psyllium carrier ensured that the textural and rheological properties remained fully comparable to the control sample, preventing undesirable matrix alterations. Specifically, product hardness (1.17–1.23 N) and adhesiveness (8.17–8.94 N·s) were maintained at stable levels, while color alterations were minor and likely noticeable only to trained observers (ΔE* < 3.2). Microbiological evaluation demonstrated that the application of different formulated products effectively inhibited the growth of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains, with inhibition rates increasing from 3.4 to 39.7%. Collectively, the experimental data demonstrate that encapsulation is a highly effective strategy for fortifying fruit-based systems with sensitive extracts, successfully maximizing bioactivity retention while maintaining high product quality and sensory appeal. Full article

Population aging has increased the need for public open spaces that older adults can use safely, comfortably, and confidently. In many urban parks and community squares, however, resting facilities are still designed as standardized street furniture, with cold materials, insufficient hand support, limited wheelchair-inclusive space, and weak support for everyday social interaction. This study examines age-friendly public facilities as micro-scale spatial elements that shape sitting, standing, staying, communication, and willingness to remain in small urban open spaces. Drawing on field observation, behavioral analysis, semi-structured interviews, and a multi-criteria design-evaluation process, the study identifies older adults’ key facility-use needs and translates them into design indicators and alternative facility schemes. The results show that physical support and inclusive spatial use are the most important design priorities. Standing-up assistance, sitting-posture support, perceived structural stability, and age-appropriate dimensional adaptation were more influential than purely decorative or auxiliary functions. Among the three alternative schemes, the modular pergola system performed best because it combined stable hand support, independent seating, an age-friendly interactive table, shaded resting space, wheelchair-inclusive layout, and wood-based sensory comfort. The sensitivity analysis further confirmed that this scheme maintained a stable advantage under most weight-adjustment conditions. The findings suggest that age-friendly public facility design should move beyond the improvement of individual furniture products and instead integrate bodily support, spatial accessibility, social interaction, material comfort, and environmental pattern quality. This study provides a design-decision framework for improving the inclusiveness, accessibility, and health-supportive capacity of urban public open spaces for older adults. Full article

The sustainable development of forest ecotourism relies on the effective stimulation of tourists’ environmentally responsible behavior, and the intervention of participatory art and aesthetics provides a new driving force for this process. Taking Xiqiaoshan National Forest Park (Nanhai Land Art Festival) as a case study, we propose an extended stimulus–organism–response (S-O-R) theoretical framework to reveal the psychological perception and transmission mechanism of participatory art and aesthetic experience in empowering the sustainable development of ecotourism. We used a hybrid approach combining PLS-SEM and artificial neural networks (ANNs) to analyze survey data from 596 Chinese tourists. The study found that sensory impressions driven by art and aesthetics significantly and positively influence tourists’ natural connections, perceived value, and ecotourism attitudes. These three constructs function as significant parallel mediators between sensory impressions and environmentally responsible behavior, while chain mediation effects are statistically significant but of small magnitude. The new environmental paradigm (NEP), conceptualized as an individual trait boundary condition, exhibits a significant negative moderating effect on the relationship between sensory impressions and connectedness to nature. ANN sensitivity analysis further complements the findings by demonstrating the prominent nonlinear predictive role of ecotourism attitudes in behavioral transformation. This study extends the application boundaries of the S-O-R theory to art-integrated ecotourism research, clarifies the internalization process of tourist experiences from sensory perception to behavioral enactment, and provides empirical evidence for forest tourism managers to optimize experience design and implement differentiated guidance strategies. Full article

Chitosan, produced through deacetylation of chitin from crustacean byproducts and, increasingly, fungal biomass and insects, is attracting food-sector interest because it combines antimicrobial activity, antioxidant capacity, biodegradability, and film-forming behavior in a single polymer. This review discusses how source, molecular weight (MW), degree of deacetylation, solubility, and charge density shape its performance in food systems. The paper then follows the main technological routes now tested or used: edible films and coatings, hydrogels, cryogels, nanoparticles, microcapsules, and hybrid matrices. These formats can protect fresh produce, meat, poultry, fish, seafood, and dairy foods, while also supporting beverage clarification, emulsion control, release of natural antimicrobials or antioxidants, and freshness monitoring in active or intelligent packaging. The evidence indicates strong promise, especially where microbial growth, lipid oxidation, moisture transfer, and short shelf life remain limiting factors. Yet, wider industrial use is still slowed by water sensitivity, sensory effects, raw-material variation, cost, process scale-up, and regulatory alignment. Future work should move beyond laboratory efficacy and address reproducible production, food-specific validation, and consumer acceptance. Full article

Hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) is an emerging non-thermal technology that is capable of improving the quality and shelf life of fruit juices while retaining heat-sensitive bioactive compounds. This study optimized a mixed-fruit juice (MFJ) blend—60% mandarin, 25% pineapple, and 15% watermelon using a D-optimal mixture design. The MFJ was subjected to HC at varying pressures (4–6 bar) and times (40–60 min) and compared to thermal treatment (90 °C for 30 s). The optimized predicted HC treatment (5 bar/52 min) effectively maintained pH, titratable acidity, and TSS. Notably, HC at 6 bar for 60 min reduced the sedimentation index by 2% and lowered viscosity to 3.56 cP. Compared to thermal processing, the optimized HC-treated sample demonstrated superior nutrient retention, preserving 82.29% of vitamin C, 93.50% of total phenolics, 87.43% of flavonoids, and 61.67% of antioxidant activity. Microbial safety was also improved, achieving a 1.35 log CFU/mL reduction in total plate count and 47.96% peroxidase inactivation. While sensory evaluation showed slightly lower acceptability for HC-treated juice (6.36) versus the control (7.14), it significantly outperformed thermal treatment (3.83). Furthermore, the cavitated sample demonstrated superior bioactive retention after 14 days of storage at 4 °C, with total phenolic content retained at 31.55 ± 0.9 mg GAE/100 mL. The findings suggest that hydrodynamic cavitation can be considered a promising non-thermal processing technology for improving physicochemical stability, preserving bioactive compounds, and extending the shelf life of functional fruit beverages. This underscores HC’s potential as a viable, high-quality alternative to traditional pasteurization in the beverage industry. Full article

Background: Sleep deprivation is one of the major public health and performance risk factors, with documented effects on vigilance, executive function, emotional regulation, and safety-critical behaviour. This review examines how event-related potentials (ERPs)—which provide millisecond-level resolution of cognitive processing stages—can clarify which neural processes are most affected by sleep loss, from early sensory encoding to later evaluative and control-related stages. Materials and Methods: This study was conducted as a systematic review of human studies on sleep deprivation and ERPs. Eligible studies included human participants, focused primarily on acute/total sleep deprivation, and reported ERP outcomes (e.g., amplitude, latency, topography, or related event-locked EEG measures). Searches were performed in major biomedical/psychology databases using sleep deprivation and ERP terms, with additional forward/backward citation searching. Data was extracted in a structured format (participant characteristics, deprivation protocol, ERP methods, behavioural outcomes, ERP findings, and recovery/countermeasure effects). Due to substantial heterogeneity in paradigms, protocols, and ERP methods, findings were synthesised narratively rather than meta-analysed. Risk of bias was assessed with RoB 2 and ROBINS-I. Results: The search identified 854 records, of which 82 studies were included following deduplication, screening, full-text review, and citation chasing. Samples were typically small, highly selected, and dominated by healthy young adults, with frequent attrition related to prolonged wakefulness and EEG data-quality constraints. Across studies, sleep deprivation produced stage-specific and task-dependent ERP effects rather than a single uniform pattern. The most consistent findings involved mid-to-late components. These components typically showed prolonged latency and reduced amplitude. In some cases, amplitude increases were observed and interpreted as compensatory recruitment. Early sensory/pre-attentive components (e.g., P1/N1/MMN/P50) were often relatively preserved, but showed selective vulnerability, including latency slowing, reduced filtering/gating, or decreased phase locking. A recurring observation was a behaviour–ERP dissociation, where ERP abnormalities were detectable even when behavioural impairment was modest, indicating covert neural inefficiency or compensation. Recovery sleep, naps, and countermeasures (e.g., modafinil, caffeine) produced partial, component-specific recovery, with amplitude and latency often recovering at different rates. Conclusions: The evidence indicates that sleep deprivation primarily disrupts higher-order, late-stage, and temporally coordinated neural processing, while earlier sensory processing is often preserved but becomes slower and less stable. Among ERP markers, the P300/P3 family is the most robust and informative signature of sleep loss effects and recovery. ERPs are therefore a sensitive tool for detecting neural dysfunction and compensation under sleep deprivation, including changes that may precede overt behavioural decline. Future research must improve the generalisability and reproducibility of ERP findings by employing larger, more diverse samples, alongside more standardised methodological, recording, and reporting practices. Full article

Visual discomfort or visual stress is an uncomfortable subjective experience that occurs in response to specific visual stimuli. It affects a large proportion of the population to various degrees, disproportionately impacting those with heightened sensory sensitivities, particularly neurodivergent individuals. We argue that this might stem from a mismatch between the statistical properties of visual stimuli in human-made environments and those in natural environments that the visual system can process efficiently. We discuss the inefficiency with which images with certain spatial, chromatic and temporal characteristics are processed by the visual system and propose a cerebral mechanism to account for the discomfort they induce. The mechanism offers a potential explanation for the large individual differences in susceptibility to discomfort. We highlight two avenues for intervention: (1) environmental modifications aimed at reducing the prevalence of visually stressing stimuli in urban settings, and (2) individual-level strategies, such as personalised optical treatments. Addressing these challenges requires an interdisciplinary effort bridging neuroscience, vision science, interior and urban design and typography to create visually accessible and inclusive environments. Full article

Edible powders are important food ingredients, and their quality strongly affects processability, stability, and nutrient delivery. Compared with conventional grinding, superfine grinding enables particle-size reduction to the micron or submicron scale and has shown considerable potential for improving the physicochemical and functional properties of food powders. This review summarizes five representative superfine grinding technologies and discusses how different mechanical force fields regulate powder quality through changes in particle size, specific surface area, cell-wall integrity, and macromolecular structure. Current evidence indicates that superfine grinding can improve hydration behavior, dissolution, the release of bioactive compounds, antioxidant activity, and in vitro bioaccessibility, but these effects are highly dependent on raw-material characteristics and processing conditions. At the same time, excessive micronization may induce particle agglomeration, thermal degradation of sensitive components, sensory deterioration, high energy consumption, and potential safety concerns related to ultrafine particles. Therefore, the performance of a single grinding technology is often constrained by intrinsic physicochemical and engineering limitations. Recent studies suggest that combining superfine grinding with pretreatment, interfacial stabilization, or encapsulation strategies can improve powder stability and functionality more effectively than grinding alone. Future research should focus on standardized evaluation systems, mechanistic clarification across food matrices, and integrated process design for industrial application. Full article

The demand for reliable, rapid, and low-cost tools for quality control analysis has driven the development and application of different instrumental approaches in the wine industry. Thus, this review aims to gather and discuss the most relevant analytical methodologies reported in the literature, with emphasis on spectroscopic, chromatographic, electroanalytical, and sensor-based techniques, including electronic noses and tongues, as well as the integration of these techniques with chemometric tools. The studied methods demonstrate, in varying levels of precision, the potential for determining chemical composition, detecting contaminants and adulterations, evaluating attributes related to sensory quality, and monitoring fermentation and aging processes. Advances in non-destructive methods with high analytical throughput are highlighted, as these approaches have gained relevance due to their applicability in routine analyses which is desired for process control. Despite the progress observed, challenges related to sensitivity, selectivity, matrix effects, and method standardization still persist, limiting their industrial implementation. Finally, this review identifies research gaps, therefore pointing to perspectives for the development of standardization routines for the different methodologies, and the integration of analytical methods in the decision-making framework of the winemaking industry. Full article

Introduction: Schizophrenia is characterised by distributed abnormalities in electrophysiological dynamics and large-scale brain networks, yet unimodal EEG or MRI alone cannot fully explain how fast neural computations relate to spatially organised circuit dysfunction. Multimodal EEG–MRI approaches offer a bridge across temporal and anatomical scales by explicitly modelling cross-modal coupling. Methods: Following PRISMA 2020 guidance, we conducted a systematic, mechanistic review of human studies (adults ≥ 18 years) comparing schizophrenia-spectrum groups with healthy controls using EEG combined with at least one MRI modality (fMRI, structural MRI, and/or diffusion MRI) and explicit EEG–MRI integration (e.g., EEG-informed fMRI, joint ICA, mCCA/MCCA, coupled matrix–tensor factorisation, DCM-based fusion). Searches were performed in PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science, Scopus, PsycINFO, IEEE Xplore, ResearchGate, and Google Scholar for January 2000–December 2025, supplemented by citation tracking. Risk of bias was assessed with ROBINS-I, and due to heterogeneity, results were synthesised narratively by integration of families. Results: From 148 records, 23 studies met the inclusion criteria. Studies used mainly simultaneous EEG–fMRI at 3T and spanned resting-state designs and task paradigms dominated by auditory processing (oddball, MMN/N100–P200, ASSR/aeGBR), with additional work in affective context, working memory, semantic processing (N400), sensory gating, and pharmacologic challenge. Across tasks, the most reproducible multimodal signature was disrupted coupling between electrophysiological markers and the recruitment of large-scale networks, rather than isolated changes in EEG or fMRI metrics. Target detection/oddball paradigms converged on reduced late ERP responses (especially P300, sometimes N2) alongside reduced expression or loss of coupling to salience/ventral attention and control circuitry (including ACC/anterior insula/TPJ). Resting-state studies most consistently indicated altered “coupling rules” (frequency specificity, timing/lag structure, and directionality), including abnormalities detectable even when unimodal summaries were weak. Extended multimodal studies (adding sMRI/DTI and/or classification) suggested that combining modalities can improve discrimination, though performance was sensitive to sample size, demographic imbalance, and feature-selection/validation choices. Conclusions: Multimodal EEG–MRI studies support schizophrenia as a disorder involving persistent structural and circuit-level abnormalities whose functional expression varies dynamically across cognitive states and task demands. Future progress will depend on harmonised acquisition/artefact-control practices for simultaneous EEG–fMRI, larger and more diverse samples (including early/CHR and longitudinal designs), and cross-site replication of mechanistically interpretable coupling biomarkers. Full article