Search Results (81)

Salivary microbiota constitutes complex microbial assemblages and acts as a source of reliable non-invasive biomarkers for evaluating growth, metabolism, and health status of farm animals. This review explores the research value of saliva and its resident microbes in livestock health monitoring. We summarize saliva composition, physiological functions, and sampling protocols for pigs, cattle, sheep, and goats. Core microbial taxa of monogastric and ruminant species are outlined, together with their roles in digestion, rumen fermentation, growth, and stress responses. We also present classic salivary diagnostic indicators and the impacts of oral bacteria on common livestock diseases. Current research is limited by undefined causal relationships, low diagnostic specificity, and heterogeneous technical standards, and thus fails to support accurate diagnosis at the individual animal level. Future studies should elucidate microbial interaction mechanisms, standardize experimental protocols, and establish multi-index evaluation models. This review advances theoretical research and promotes the practical application of salivary microbiota in precision livestock farming. Full article

The detailed mechanism and sequence by which tick-borne flaviviruses (TBFVs), such as Langat virus (LGTV), infect and disseminate in arthropod hosts remain undefined. To begin characterizing these processes, we used artificial membrane feeding chambers to feed adult Ixodes scapularis ticks with blood containing LGTV. At 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours (h) after attachment, we removed and dissected the partially fed ticks to obtain the midgut and salivary glands. Histology confirmed infection in cells of the digestive epithelium lineage; infection was noted in midgut generative cells and the more differentiated functional digestive cells over the course of feeding. The viral envelope (E) protein, nonstructural protein 3 (NS3), and double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) were readily detected in these cells by 48 h after infection. Parallel analysis indicated that cells in salivary gland acini were also infected by 48 h, where virus target cells appeared to be the granular cells in acini types II and III. Thus, both salivary glands and midgut showed direct evidence of infection by 48 h. Although viral staining was not observed at 24 h, when organs were removed at 24 h and individually cultured ex vivo, the virus was detected. Taken together, our results provide evidence of LGTV infection in both the salivary glands and midgut within the first 24 h of a blood meal. The findings should prompt a reevaluation of the systemic dissemination of TBFV in infected ticks. Full article

Dietary antioxidants are widely valued for their potential health benefits, but incorporating them into functional foods is not straightforward. Polyphenols are among the most abundant and important antioxidants in foods, and this review focuses on them because the same structural features linked to their health-promoting effects can also cause pronounced bitterness and astringency, ultimately limiting consumer acceptance. This review examines how these challenges are interconnected across three levels: food matrix interactions, bioavailability, and consumer psychobiology. We describe how non-covalent interactions between polyphenols, proteins, and polysaccharides can have both positive and negative effects. While these interactions may alter oral lubrication and flavour release, they also protect highly reactive bioactive compounds from gastric degradation. Furthermore, we broaden the concept of bioavailability by exploring the microbiota-mediated “colonic rescue” of polyphenols that are not released during earlier digestion. We also highlight the role of extraoral bitter taste receptors (TAS2Rs) along the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Activation of these receptors during digestion can trigger relevant metabolic and endocrine responses, indicating that systemic absorption is not the only pathway to bioactivity. Finally, we connect these mechanisms to individual differences in food acceptance, showing that genetic factors (e.g., TAS2R38 and the salivary proteome) and psychological traits (such as neophobia and reward sensitivity) can shape rejection or flavour-nutrient learning. Overall, the successful development of functional foods will require a “sensory-by-design” approach. This strategy utilises matrix interactions strategically to improve both consumer acceptance and physiological efficacy. Full article

The salivary gland is a key organ in insects that plays essential roles in food digestion, nutrient absorption, and energy metabolism, thereby highlighting the importance of studying salivary gland function for gaining a better understanding of nutritional utilization and insect–plant interactions. To date, however, a lack of salivary gland-specific promoters has limited functional analyses of salivary gland genes in Lepidoptera. In this study, based on microarray and salivary gland transcriptome data, we identified nine candidate genes characterized by high salivary gland expression. Semi-quantitative PCR analysis confirmed cholinesterase (BmCe, BGIBMGA010988) as the optimal candidate for promoter cloning. Temporal expression analysis revealed that the expression of BmCe reaches a peak during days 2–4 of the fifth larval instar. A 2152 bp fragment upstream of the transcription initiation site of BmCe was selected as the putative promoter sequence (designated BmCeP) and cloned to construct a piggyBac transgenic vector driving DsRed expression. Transgenic silkworms were obtained via embryonic microinjection and tissue expression analysis on day three of fifth-instar larvae revealed the predominant localization of DsRed expression in the salivary glands. In this study, we thus identified a gene promoter characterized by salivary gland-predominant expression in Bombyx mori, which we believe could serve as a valuable genetic tool for investigating the molecular mechanisms underlying silkworm nutritional utilization and interactions with its host plant, mulberry. Full article

Objective: The oral cavity is the beginning of the digestive tract and the composition of saliva could indicate immune events in the gut and joints. The objective of this research was to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of salivary interleukin (IL)-17A for temporomandibular joint (TMJ) internal derangements (IDs) in patients with spondyloarthritis (SpA). Methods: SpA disease activity was assessed using the Bath Ankylosing Disease Activity Index (BASDAI), Ankylosing Spondylitis Disease Activity Score (ASDAS) and Disease Activity Index for Psoriatic Arthritis (DAPSA). Salivary cytokines were analyzed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. TMJ conditions were evaluated using The Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular Disorder (DC/TMD) protocol. A symptomatic TMJ-ID group with intracapsular arthralgia (n = 64) and asymptomatic TMJ-ID group without intracapsular arthralgia (n = 50), regardless of joint sounds, were compared with controls (healthy TMJs, n = 86). Results: Women were more prevalent and salivary IL-17A concentration was higher in both ID groups than in controls. Salivary IL-17A levels positively correlated with erythrocyte sedimentation rate, anti-streptolysin-O titer, salivary IL-12/23 p40 and matrix metalloproteinase-3 levels, sore and swollen joint counts, BASDAI, chronic TMJ pain and anxiety. IL-17A demonstrated diagnostic accuracy for currently symptomatic (cutoff, 11 pg/mL) and asymptomatic (cutoff, 11.6 pg/mL) TMJ-ID vs. controls. Patients with IL-17A levels above these cutoffs more frequently exhibited disc displacement with reduction and degenerative TMJ disease, higher self-reported spinal pain and higher SpA activity, as assessed by ASDAS, than patients with IL-17A levels ≤ cutoffs. TMJ-related headache and somatization contributed to greater TMJ pain in those with IL-17A > cutoffs, when compared with dichotomous controls. Conclusions: Salivary IL-17A concentration provides an accurate laboratory marker of SpA activity and enables the diagnosis of both currently symptomatic and asymptomatic TMJ-IDs in patients with SpA. Full article

Simulating carbohydrate digestion in physiologically relevant ways remains a challenge for in vitro models. In this study, the Dynamic In vitro Human Stomach (DIVHS) system was applied to investigate cereal digestion and subsequent intestinal cellular responses. Rice, millet, and corn were digested under dynamic and static conditions. Compared with the static model, the dynamic system generated smaller grain fragments, a larger chyme–enzyme contact area (451.2 ± 4.4 cm² vs. 160.4 ± 6.0 cm²), and higher average intragastric pressure (25.0 ± 1.2 kPa vs. 7.2 ± 0.7 kPa). Salivary amylase activity also declined more gradually in the dynamic system. An empirical approach for predicting the glycemic index (eGI) was proposed, which showed improved agreement with reported human GI values compared with earlier in vitro methods. Exposure of Caco-2 cells to digested products significantly altered transcriptional profiles, including protein binding, ATP binding, and glucose transporter activity. Notably, products from the dynamic model induced stronger transcriptional responses than those from the static model, including 421 genes up-regulated and 138 down-regulated. Functional enrichment highlighted pathways related to glucose transport, energy metabolism, and cellular regulation. Overall, this study demonstrates the advantages of dynamic digestion models in replicating gastrointestinal conditions, improving GI prediction, and providing mechanistic insights into intestinal cellular responses to digested carbohydrates. Full article

Pacific pygmy octopus Paroctopus digueti is a promising model for cephalopod research and aquaculture; its feeding and nutritional biology remain poorly understood. The anterior salivary glands (ASG), posterior salivary glands (PSG), and digestive gland (DG) are central to these processes, but molecular comparisons are lacking. To address this gap, we performed a transcriptomic study to explore the enzymatic repertoire and functional specialization of these tissues. Total RNA was extracted from ASG, PSG, and DG of three pre-adult individuals collected in La Paz Bay, Mexico. RNA-Seq libraries were sequenced, and a non-redundant multi-tissue transcriptome was assembled. The ASG displayed high expression of neuropeptides, playing a role in neuroendocrine regulation. The PSG showed elevated protease expression, supporting its function in extracellular digestion, alongside toxins that reinforce its role as a venom gland. The DG was enriched in proteins linked to biomolecule catabolism and antimicrobial peptides, alluding to metabolic specialization and immune defense. These results were validated by qPCR, and target genes were also amplified in Octopus maya and O. hubbsorum, showing some similarities in expression patterns. Overall, our findings suggest strong glandular specialization in P. digueti, providing insights into cephalopod digestive physiology and supporting its value as a model species. Full article

This research aimed to analyze the proteomic profile of the low-molecular mass fraction of salivary pools from patients with glioblastoma IDH wild type (GBM) to disclose the small protein and peptide components, including protein fragments, cryptides, and tumor-associated peptides, still lacking specific information in the literature, to the best of our knowledge. This fraction, corresponding to the unretained proteome fraction, was obtained by pretreating the acid-soluble fraction of saliva through Filter-Aided Sample Preparation devices with a filter molecular cutoff of 10 kDa. The fraction was analyzed by LC-MS in its entire form, without trypsin pre-digestion, following a top–down approach. Data from the analysis of pre- and post-operative salivary pools from patients with newly diagnosed and recurrent GBM were compared and discussed with data obtained in our previous study on the complementary salivary proteome fraction > 10 kDa analyzed by a bottom–up approach and data from the literature. The results highlighted a panel of GBM-associated peptide fragments from different protein precursors, namely, ANXA1, CFL1, GLUL, PFN1, H2AC12, ACTB, and HBB, which are suggested for further exploration as potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers and clinical applications. These findings, although providing only preliminary results on a small scale, offer new insights into the molecular characteristics of GBM tumor and lay the groundwork for further investigations on a large scale using saliva liquid biopsy for biomarker discovery and validation. The aim is to advance precision medicine and improve clinical outcomes in GBM, one of the most aggressive brain tumors with a poor prognosis, for which early diagnosis and monitoring of treatment response remain significant challenges. Full article

Although the pancreas is the organ that produces the most critical digestive enzymes, there are other important contributors to the cleavage of food into absorbable units. Pre-pancreatic digestion of carbohydrates occurs through the action of salivary amylase. Pre-pancreatic digestion of fats is mediated by lingual and gastric lipases, and their action may be important as a signal for coordinated digestion. Pepsin, which is present in the stomach, initiates the digestion of dietary proteins into peptides and amplifies distal proteolysis. The major post-pancreatic intestinal carbohydrate-digesting enzymes are sucrase-isomaltase, maltase-glucoamylase and lactase-phlorizin hydrolase. There are no post-pancreatic mucosal enzymes that act on dietary triglycerides; however, the complete digestion of phospholipids depends on several brush border phospholipases. Intestinal processing is an important contributor to digestion of proteins, although mucosal proteases may serve as signaling proteins rather than as primary adjuncts to dietary protein digestion and absorption. This review describes the role of these non-pancreatic digestive enzymes in supporting nutritional health. Full article

Digestion was once viewed as a host-driven process, dependent on salivary, gastric, pancreatic, and intestinal enzymes to break down macronutrients. However, new insights into the gut microbiota have redefined this view, highlighting digestion as a cooperative effort between host and microbial enzymes. Host enzymes initiate nutrient breakdown, while microbial enzymes, especially in the colon, extend this process by fermenting resistant polysaccharides, modifying bile acids, and transforming phytochemicals and xenobiotics into bioactive compounds. These microbial actions produce metabolites like short-chain fatty acids, which influence gut barrier function, immune regulation, and metabolism. I propose two frameworks to describe this interaction: the “duet,” emphasizing sequential enzymatic cooperation, and the “orchestra,” reflecting a spatially and temporally coordinated system with host–microbiota feedback. Disruption of this symbiosis, through antibiotics, inflammation, diet, or aging, leads to dysbiosis, impaired digestion, and contributes to metabolic, neurologic, cardiovascular, and inflammatory diseases. Recognizing digestion as a dynamic, integrated system opens new paths for therapies and nutrition. These include enzyme-targeted prebiotics, probiotics, postbiotics, and personalized diets. Embracing this systems-level perspective enables innovative diagnostics and treatments, aiming to restore enzymatic balance and improve digestive and systemic health. Full article

Salivary α-amylase, primarily encoded by the AMY1 gene, initiates the enzymatic digestion of dietary starch in the oral cavity and has recently emerged as a potential biomarker in metabolic research. Variability in salivary amylase activity (SAA), driven largely by copy number variation of AMY1, has been associated with postprandial glycemic responses, insulin secretion dynamics, and susceptibility to obesity. This review critically examines current analytical approaches for quantifying SAA, including enzymatic assays, colorimetric techniques, immunoassays, and emerging biosensor technologies. The methodological limitations related to sample handling, intra-individual variability, assay standardization, and specificity are highlighted in the context of metabolic and clinical studies. Furthermore, the review explores the physiological relevance of SAA in energy homeostasis and its associations with visceral adiposity and insulin resistance. We discuss the potential integration of SAA measurements into obesity risk stratification and personalized dietary interventions, particularly in individuals with altered starch metabolism. Finally, the review identifies key research gaps and future directions necessary to validate SAA as a reliable metabolic biomarker in clinical practice. Understanding the diagnostic and prognostic value of salivary amylase may offer new insights into the prevention and management of obesity and related metabolic disorders. Full article

This review examines human digestive physiology and metabolic adaptations in the context of evolutionary dietary patterns, particularly those emphasizing carnivorous and scavenging behaviors. By integrating metabolomic data with archaeological, anatomical, and microbiological evidence, the study explores how early hominins adapted to intermittent but energy-dense animal-based diets. The analysis highlights the development of hepatic insulin resistance, enhanced fat and protein metabolism, and shifts in gut microbiota diversity as physiological signatures of meat consumption. Comparative evaluations of digestive enzyme profiles, intestinal morphology, and salivary composition underscore humans’ omnivorous flexibility and partial carnivorous specialization. Additionally, biomarkers such as ketone bodies, branched-chain amino acids, and trimethylamine-N-oxide are identified as metabolic indicators of habitual meat intake. These adaptations, though once evolutionarily advantageous, are discussed in relation to current metabolic disorders in modern nutritional contexts. Overall, this review presents a metabolomic framework for understanding the evolutionary trajectory of human digestion and its implications for health and dietary recommendations. Full article

Background/Objectives: Holotomography is an advanced imaging technique that enables high-resolution, three-dimensional visualization of microscopic specimens without the need for fixation or staining. Here we aim to apply holotomography technology to image live Hypsibius exemplaris in their native state, avoiding invasive sample preparation procedures and phototoxic effects associated with other imaging modalities. Methods: We use a low concentration of 7% ethanol for tardigrade sedation and sample preparation. Holotomographic images were obtained and reconstructed using the Tomocube HT-X1 system, enabling high-resolution visualization of tardigrade anatomical structures. Results: We captured detailed, label-free holotomography images of both external and internal structures of tardigrade, including the digestive tract, brain, ovary, claws, salivary glands, and musculature. Conclusions: Our findings highlight holotomography as a complementary high-resolution imaging modality that effectively addresses the challenges faced with traditional imaging techniques in tardigrade research. Full article

Background: This research aimed to compare the traditional in-solution digestion (inSol) and solid-phase-enhanced sample preparation (SP3) methods for salivary proteomics, with a focus on identifying mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS)-relevant proteins. Methods: Saliva samples were processed under multiple analytical conditions, including two precipitation methods (methanol or incubation with trichloroacetic acid), paired with either Rapigest or 8M urea/2M thiourea (UT) solubilization buffers. Additionally, the SP3 method was directly applied to raw saliva without pre-processing. Proteome coverage, reproducibility, digestion efficiency, and gene function were assessed. Results: The inSol method consistently provided superior proteome coverage, with trichloroacetic acid precipitation and Rapigest buffer yielding 74 MPS-relevant proteins, compared to 40 with SP3 MeOH UT. Both methods showed high digestion efficiency, particularly with Rapigest buffer, achieving over 80% full cleavage across conditions. Functional analysis revealed broad similarities, with protocol-specific impacts on protein classes and cellular components. Conclusions: This study is the first to compare SP3 and in-solution digestion for salivary proteomics, emphasizing the importance of method selection to address matrix-specific challenges. The results highlight the robustness of inSol for comprehensive proteome profiling and SP3′s potential for streamlined clinical workflows, offering valuable insights into optimizing salivary proteomics for biomarker discovery in MPS and other diseases. Full article

The current study began with the following question: Is smoking a balanced factor between human body systems? One of the particular features of the oral cavity is its localization at the gateway of respiratory and digestive. Morphologically, the oral cavity encompasses a complex association of soft tissues, hard tissues, salivary glands, and taste receptors. The main purpose of this study was to analyze the tobacco residues (TAR) deposited on dental materials and the alterations of artificial saliva that comes into contact with tobacco smoke, by obtaining a solution of cigarette smoke extracts (CSE) after 5, 10, 15, and 20 tobacco cigarettes. According to LC-MS analysis and FT-IR spectra, carbonyl compounds, phenols, and carboxylic acids are present in CSE, which could explain the pH decrease and acid characteristic. Moreover, the CSE solution was added to the culture medium of Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) to evaluate the cytotoxicity. The MTT study revealed decreased MSC viability; morphological changes and cell death were more intense at higher doses of CSE added to the culture medium. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) indicated cellular ruffling and irregular cell surface under higher concentrations of CSE-15 and CSE-20 in culture media, which is a characteristic feature demonstrating the membrane stress. In conclusion, the present study, with its limitations, showed the negative cellular effects of tobacco cigarette smoking and the impact of this habit on the oral cavity homeostasis. Full article