Search Results (119)

This study assessed the performance of a rural water supply system. Performance assessment of water supply systems is important to ensure the long-term sustainability of water services. The study addressed a critical gap in assessing performance while accounting for water disruptions and their effects on water quality in nonlinear rural water supply systems. This is critical, especially in rural areas where reliable access to water is limited. A questionnaire survey was conducted to collect data on the reliability and accessibility of the water supply system. Questionnaire responses were analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 25. Spearman’s rank correlation was used to determine the relationship between the socio-economic variables and the performance indicators. and the variables. Turbidity, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), and pH were measured in the field. Escherichia coli (E. coli) and total coliforms were analysed using the membrane filtration method. A paired two-tailed t-test was used to determine if there is a significant difference in water quality between the dry and wet seasons. Key performance indicators on reliability and accessibility were assessed by comparing benchmarks. Most households receive an inadequate quantity of water, with 84.3% using less than the recommended basic need of 1500 L per week. Travel distances to the source exceeded the recommended benchmark of 100 m. The majority of respondents (81.4%) reported frequent water supply disruptions, indicating poor reliability of the source. EC and pH were within the South African National Standards (SANS) 241 guideline for drinking water. TDS, turbidity, and microbial parameters failed to meet safe drinking water standards, except for E. coli during the dry season. There was no significant difference in the water quality between the dry and wet seasons. The water supply system demonstrated poor performance. Measures such as implementing low-cost filtration systems to reduce turbidity, raising community awareness about water safety, and decentralising maintenance activities to improve system sustainability due to financial constraints. These interventions will reduce physical burdens and increase effective water usage. Full article

Access to clean and safe drinking water for all remains a global challenge, mainly for rural populations and areas affected by natural disasters or humanitarian crises. The traditional water quality treatment technologies can work well in laboratory or controlled settings, but they are usually applied under conditions unavailable in these types of conditions. Traditional water quality treatment methods are limited by established infrastructure, expensive operating costs, energy requirements, and the ability to perform in-field water treatment. To improve the barriers of traditional water quality treatment technologies, recently developed scientific discoveries of nanozymes, a new class of nanomaterials with enzyme-like catalytic activity, have shown the ability to decentralise water purification. Nanozymes provide a mechanism for water treatment that does not require the infrastructure or the cost of traditional water quality treatment methods. Also, nanozymes possess extremely high catalytic activity, chemical stability, are inexpensive, and are suitable for a variety of contaminants. This review gives a systematic overview of the development of suitable nanozyme-based portable water purification systems. It shows their catalytic mechanisms, the class of nanozymes used, and the design characteristics related to their working use, also highlighting the developments that consider the specific needs of rural contexts, provide rapid responses to disaster areas, and offer drinking water with reliable, simple, and sustainable apparatus. Full article

Large portions of rural population in South Africa lack access to basic water and sanitation. This advocates for urgent interventions in support of water supply. This study assessed the performance of solar-powered groundwater pumping systems established at nine pilot sites in rural areas of Greater Giyani Municipality (Limpopo, South Africa). Performance assessment indicators, namely weather, groundwater abstraction, power supply, water supply, water quality, number of beneficiaries and farm productivity, were monitored (2023–2024). Increased groundwater abstraction reduced groundwater levels by 0.4–11 m, depending on the monitored borehole. This was replenished by above-average rainfall in 2023 (≈650 mm). Power supply and pump discharge rates were stable with generally low fluctuations at recommended pumping rates (0.5–2.0 L s⁻¹). Groundwater quality was generally fit to marginal for irrigation and drinking. High levels of NO₃⁻ and total organic carbon, especially in the proximity of villages, mandated the installation of mini water treatment plants for drinking water. The implementation of solar-powered groundwater pumping schemes was generally successful, with more than 5000 villagers benefiting directly from the interventions, whilst smallholder farms turned into commercial and financially viable enterprises. Long-term monitoring of bio-physical and socio-economic drivers is essential to ensure long-term sustainability of the solar-powered groundwater pumping systems. Full article

In the United States, most urban areas are served by sewers and wastewater treatment plants, while septic systems remain common in rural regions, in lower-density communities, and in areas with lower levels of public services. The policy frameworks for septic system management are complex and variable, involving multiple key actors and levels of government and varying considerably from place to place. This research seeks to characterize the septic system management practices in two New York State watersheds: The first study area is located in central New York (the Lower Seneca River watershed) and comprises communities with greater reliance on surface water, and the second is in eastern New York on Long Island (Peconic Estuary Watershed), where groundwater is the primary source of drinking water. Since homeowner practices play a central role in outcomes, we also investigate homeowners’ understandings of their septic systems (also called onsite wastewater treatment systems, or OWTS). The methods used include policy analysis as well as qualitative research methods (interviews, focus groups, and survey research) to characterize homeowners’ perceptions and understandings, including their awareness of grant programs for septic system upgrades and replacement. The results show that most septic system owners hold only partial understandings of their systems. Their awareness of the connections between septic system management and groundwater protection is limited, with noted differences across watersheds. The study findings can inform future planning initiatives, as they illustrate the value of placing community water system understanding at the forefront of outreach efforts. Full article

Most empirical research on drinking water governance and regional transformations in Bangladesh has focused on developed and urban regions. We focus on coastal rural areas to address this gap and employ a three-step methodology for the systematic analysis of the broader and site-specific drinking water landscape, involving (i) stakeholder analysis and mapping to identify key actors and characteristics, (ii) field work to identify case study sites, meet stakeholders and identify local water technologies, and (iii) in-depth analysis, triangulating stakeholders, drinking water technologies and governance structures, to identify synergies, differences, gaps and overlaps within them. Taking four different but illustrative case study areas in the Southwestern coastal region of Bangladesh, we identify key stakeholders and capture the multiplicity and dynamism of governance models. We provide the first in-depth mapping of the drinking water landscape in coastal rural Bangladesh. Results reveal a fragmented rural water governance landscape, marked by failed or non-functional technologies due to disputes, poor maintenance, high costs, and lack of accountability after project completion, leaving communities to seek alternative water resources for themselves. We argue that informal water provision currently needs to exist beyond well-known governance models due to system inefficiencies and short legacies of implemented technologies. As the water deficit is predicted to increase, it is imperative to identify the complexities and inefficiencies in governance structures to construct collaborative, sustainable approaches to ensuring drinking water security. Full article

Contamination of agricultural water poses significant health risks that are often underrecognized in clinical practice. This review synthesizes peer-reviewed literature from biomedical and environmental sciences. It examines the pathways by which nitrates and zoonotic pathogens contaminate rural drinking water and delineates the resulting spectrum of acute and chronic health risks relevant to primary care. Agricultural practices are a primary source of nitrates and pathogens (e.g., Escherichia coli, Cryptosporidium, Giardia) in rural water supplies. Nitrate nitrogen exposure is linked not only to acute infant methemoglobinemia but also to chronic conditions like colorectal and thyroid cancers and adverse birth outcomes. These risks are observed at concentrations below the current United States Environmental Protection Agency regulatory limit of 10 mg L⁻¹ NO₃⁻–N. Pathogen exposure leads to acute gastrointestinal illness and can trigger long-term sequelae, including irritable bowel syndrome. Agricultural communities are uniquely vulnerable because they rely heavily on unregulated private wells, which are more prone to contamination than public systems. Evidence suggests a substantial and often underrecognized burden of waterborne disease in agricultural communities. The findings highlight a critical need for clinical vigilance regarding low-level nitrate nitrogen exposure and long-term post-infectious syndromes. By identifying these patterns, family physicians serve as essential sentinels for both individual patient safety and community public health. Full article

In regions with abundant solar energy, solar water disinfection (SODIS) offers a sustainable strategy to improve drinking water access, especially in rural, off-grid communities. This study presents a numerical modeling approach to assess the thermal and microbial disinfection performance of glass-free parabolic trough collectors (PTCs). The model integrates geometric sizing, one-dimensional thermal energy balance, and first-order microbial inactivation kinetics, supported by optical simulations in SolTRACE 3.0. Simulations applied to a representative case in the Colombian Caribbean (Gambote, Bolívar) highlight the influence of rim angle, focal length, and optical properties on system efficiency. Results show that compact PTCs can achieve fluid temperatures above 70 °C and effective pathogen inactivation within short exposure times. Sensitivity analysis identifies key geometric and environmental factors that optimize performance under variable conditions. The model provides a practical tool for guiding the design and local adaptation of SODIS systems, supporting decentralized, low-cost water treatment solutions aligned with sustainable development goals. Furthermore, it offers a framework for future assessments of PTC implementations in different climatic scenarios. Full article

Global strategies for ensuring access to clean and safe drinking water are increasingly shifting toward a preventive approach based on risk assessment and risk management of the entire water supply and production chain. However, many developing countries, including South Africa, still lag in adopting advanced real-time water monitoring technologies aligned with Water 4.0 principles. To transition to these innovative technologies, it is essential to understand current gaps in water monitoring and the challenges to adopting these systems. This systemic review aims to assess current monitoring practices, identify implementation challenges, and explore strategic pathways for adopting smart water infrastructure in eThekwini Municipality, South Africa. This review identifies critical gaps in eThekwini’s water quality monitoring, including limited real-time surveillance, fragmented data systems, budgetary constraints, cybersecurity vulnerabilities, uneven rural–urban access, slow commercialization of academic innovations, policy misalignment, and insufficient technical capacity. It emphasizes the potential of real-time monitoring systems, automation, and artificial intelligence (AI) to address existing water quality monitoring challenges. Additionally, special focus is given to the role of electronic sensors in measuring physicochemical parameters like turbidity, pH, and dissolved oxygen as cost-effective indicators for detecting microbial contaminants. Implementing Water 4.0 strategies provides eThekwini and similar municipalities an opportunity to develop a more proactive, resilient, and sustainable approach to water quality management. Full article

People are exposed to pesticides daily through food, drinking water, and the environment, both in urban and rural settings. These chemicals, while offering economic and agricultural benefits through pest control and increased productivity, may pose a growing risk to human health and ecosystem biodiversity. While the European regulatory framework offers a robust foundation for risk assessment, significant limitations persist, especially in addressing cumulative exposure, low-dose effects, and chemical mixtures. This review focuses on selected scientific and regulatory challenges by reviewing recent European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) conclusions, Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) test guidelines updates, and current European legislative approaches. Particular attention is given to the regulation of endocrine-disrupting and reprotoxic substances, highlighting progress and remaining gaps in implementation. A brief mention will also be made of immuno-toxic substances, for which no specific hazard class has yet been established. Building on official reports and peer-reviewed literature, this review provides a structured evaluation of the scientific and regulatory landscape, including underexplored issues like the transition to animal-free toxicology and integration of biomonitoring with health data. The goal is to propose realistic, evidence-based improvements to current frameworks using integrated, interdisciplinary approaches that connect toxicology, policy, and implementation science. A shift to a holistic, systems-based, and precautionary paradigm is vital to address emerging challenges and ensure strong protection of health and environment, as well as supporting the needs of the agricultural sector. Full article

This study investigates the paradoxical water security challenges in western Chilean Patagonia, where the regional abundance of water resources masks significant vulnerabilities of drinking water systems. We conducted an integrated socio-hydrological analysis over rural (APR) and urban (APU) drinking water systems, which provide water to approximately 846,000 people. We georeferenced 343 drinking water intake points, from which 51.6% are sourced from groundwater, and 45.8% from surface waters (2.6% other sources). An eco-hydrological characterization was conducted on the 147 watersheds supplying water to the surface intake points. Watersheds were characterized by their main hydrological, morphological, and land cover features, as well as by their level of anthropization (AI) and water stress index (WSI). Social dimensions were captured through structured interviews with 117 APR directorate leaders regarding their perceptions of infrastructure, governance, climate change, and local water management challenges. Our findings suggest that water availability in Patagonia creates a mirage of water security. AI and WSI indicate high variability in the status of water sources, with 25% of watersheds showing high levels of anthropization and 33% with medium to high levels of water stress, making it relevant to explore the results through a combination of hydroclimatic, longitudinal, and latitudinal gradients. A novel analysis linking WSI and AI to governance perceptions was conducted, finding significant inverse correlations between WSI and both technical capacity and users’ participation. Despite the region’s evident abundance of water resources, rural communities consistently express concerns regarding supply sustainability, infrastructure deficiencies, insufficient technical support, and climate change risks to current and future water availability, all of which constrain water security in Chilean Patagonia. Full article

Access to microbiologically safe water in preschool educational settings constitutes a pressing public health challenge, particularly in rural areas with deficient infrastructure. Repeated exposure to enteropathogens present in contaminated water has been associated with acute gastrointestinal infections, environmental enteropathy, and disruptions in the intestinal microbiota of young children. Motivated by this concern, the present study evaluates the microbiological quality of water in 32 public preschool facilities in the municipality of Matehuala, San Luis Potosí—18 urban and 14 rural—by analyzing the presence of aerobic mesophilic bacteria (AMB), total coliforms (TC), fecal coliforms (FC), and helminth eggs. The assessment was conducted in accordance with Mexican standards NOM-092-SSA1-1994 and NOM-230-SSA1-2002 and supplemented with the World Health Organization’s guidelines for drinking-water quality. The findings revealed a marked territorial disparity: 100% of rural schools that relied on rooftop water tanks exceeded permissible limits for TC, and 35.7% tested positive for FC. In contrast, all urban schools—supplied through piped water systems—complied with current regulations. Statistical analysis (Mann–Whitney U test, p < 0.05) confirmed significant differences in microbiological contamination based on geographic location and type of water supply. In all FC-positive cases, a lack of sewage infrastructure and inadequate sanitation practices in storage containers were documented. These results demonstrate that formal access to water does not ensure its microbiological safety, particularly in settings with poor structural conditions. The study underscores the urgent need to implement point-of-use water treatment technologies, establish regular microbiological monitoring protocols, and provide training for educational staff in water hygiene practices. Full article

Food safety management in rural ethnic schools remains underdeveloped in Northern Thailand. This study evaluates such systems in primary schools using the Plan Do Check Act (PDCA) framework, which can serve as a scalable and culturally sensitive tool to strengthen food safety systems in multi-ethnic school environments. Multi-criteria decision analysis was employed across nine schools representing the Hmong, Lisu, Lahu, Akha, Kamoo, Haw, Mien, Karen, and Lau communities. Data collection included (1) PDCA-based rubric scoring validated by three experts; (2) in-depth interviews and field observations; (3) food and water contamination testing; and (4) microbiological analysis of chefs’ hands and utensils (detected or non-detected). The results showed that only 45% of the schools involved had third-party food safety monitoring, and 45% lacked systems to gather student feedback. None could independently assess chlorine or food residue. Escherichia coli contamination was found on chefs’ hands (44%), utensils (56%), and drinking water (33%). Schools C (Lahu) and F (Haw) had the highest and lowest PDCA scores, respectively. Therefore, schools should (1) train employees, (2) work with a third party responsible for monitoring food safety, and (3) establish raw material and contamination self-assessment processes to improve food safety. Implementing PDCA to improve food safety in neglected schools is essential. Full article

Newfoundland and Labrador have strong wind and water resources, making hybrid renewable energy systems an important option for the region. This paper presents the design and simulation of a system that combines wind turbines and micro-hydro power to deliver clean electricity for water treatment in remote communities. Many isolated areas still rely on diesel and other conventional sources, which create environmental concerns. Using HOMER Pro 3.17.1 software, the system was modeled based on local climate and resource conditions. Results show that it can produce over 35,000 kWh per year, enough to power a standard water treatment unit serving more than 240 people. By integrating wind and hydro with battery storage, the system ensures stable operation and reduces dependence on fossil fuels. The environmental analysis confirms that it avoids over 9 tons of CO₂ emissions annually. The novelty of this work is its site-specific approach, showing how renewable energy can improve both energy security and water quality in remote Canadian communities while providing a model for sustainable rural development. Full article

This research evaluates the vulnerability of public infrastructure in San Luis parish, Riobamba canton, Ecuador, to the flood risk posed by the Chibunga River under return period scenarios of 10, 50, 100, and 500 years. The main objective was to identify the most exposed systems—such as drinking water, sewerage, power grid, and utility poles—in order to prioritize mitigation measures. The methodology combined hydrometeorological analysis, hydraulic modeling using HEC-HMS and Iber, and the estimation of economic losses through the DaLA methodology. The results reveal that the low vulnerability of the drinking water system, as less than 0.08% of the network’s length, is at risk in the high-to-very-high range, even in a scenario with a 500-year return period. On the other hand, there is evidence of high exposure of the sewerage network in extreme scenarios, considering that 49.15% is at high-to-very-high risk in the worst-case scenario. Furthermore, as the return period increases, there is a growing impact on the electrical network, where the proportion of assets at high-to-very-high risk increases from 0.60% to 6.88% for high voltage, 0.00% to 18.03% for low voltage, and 0.00% to 1.18% for streetlights for a return period of 10 to 500 years. It should be noted that the estimated direct economic losses amount to USD 84,162.86 when taking into account the worst-case scenario. In this regard, the novelty of this study lies in the integration of technical, hydraulic, and economic analyses for a scarcely studied rural Andean area, providing crucial data for preventive risk management. It concludes that investment in prevention is more cost-effective than post-disaster reconstruction, recommending the strengthening of the sewerage system’s hydraulic capacity and the optimization of electrical infrastructure protection. Full article

Latin American countries continue to face critical challenges in ensuring safe and continuous access to drinking water, particularly in rural and peri-urban areas. This article presents a territorial and institutional diagnosis of drinking water access in the Piura region (Peru). It is a coastal region with approximately 2 million inhabitants, characterized by environmental stress, governance fragmentation, and social inequality. The study adopts a structural documentary approach based on academic literature and validated institutional data to analyze spatial disparities in water coverage, continuity, and quality. It identifies structural and institutional barriers—such as overlapping mandates, limited local capacity, and the absence of monitoring systems—to universal access. The findings also highlight the limitations of isolated innovation efforts, such as pilot projects led by universities and private companies, which often lack mechanisms for institutional integration and policy scaling. The analysis is framed within international water governance frameworks, including the OECD Principles and the Integrated Water Resources Management paradigm, and aligns with Sustainable Development Goal 6. The study offers a multi-scalar perspective grounded in local realities and identifies governance research gaps in rural Peru. Results underscore the need for territorialized planning, strengthened coordination, and inclusive governance to achieve sustainable and equitable water access in fragile contexts. Full article