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Search Results (313)

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Keywords = redox flow battery

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22 pages, 5322 KiB  
Article
Comparative Modeling of Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries Using Multiple Linear Regression and Random Forest Algorithms
by Ammar Ali, Sohel Anwar and Afshin Izadian
Energy Storage Appl. 2025, 2(3), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/esa2030011 - 5 Aug 2025
Abstract
This paper presents a comparative study of data-driven modeling approaches for vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs), utilizing Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) and Random Forest (RF) algorithms. Experimental voltage–capacity datasets from a 1 kW/1 kWh VRFB system were digitized, processed, and used for model [...] Read more.
This paper presents a comparative study of data-driven modeling approaches for vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs), utilizing Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) and Random Forest (RF) algorithms. Experimental voltage–capacity datasets from a 1 kW/1 kWh VRFB system were digitized, processed, and used for model training, validation, and testing. The MLR model, built using eight optimized features, achieved a mean error (ME) of 0.0204 V, a residual sum of squares (RSS) of 8.87, and a root mean squared error (RMSE) of 0.1796 V on the test data, demonstrating high predictive performance in stationary operating regions. However, it exhibited limited accuracy during dynamic transitions. Optimized through out-of-bag (OOB) error minimization, the Random Forest model achieved a training RMSE of 0.093 V and a test RMSE of 0.110 V, significantly outperforming MLR in capturing dynamic behavior while maintaining comparable performance in steady-state regions. The accuracy remained high even at lower current densities. Feature importance analysis and partial dependence plots (PDPs) confirmed the dominance of current-related features and SOC dynamics in influencing VRFB terminal voltage. Overall, the Random Forest model offers superior accuracy and robustness, making it highly suitable for real-time VRFB system monitoring, control, and digital twin integration. This study highlights the potential of combining machine learning algorithms with electrochemical domain knowledge to enhance battery system modeling for future energy storage applications. Full article
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13 pages, 3774 KiB  
Article
Design of TEMPO-Based Polymer Cathode Materials for pH-Neutral Aqueous Organic Redox Flow Batteries
by Yanwen Ren, Qianqian Zheng, Cuicui He, Jingjing Nie and Binyang Du
Materials 2025, 18(15), 3624; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18153624 - 1 Aug 2025
Viewed by 168
Abstract
Aqueous organic redox flow batteries (AORFBs) represent an advancing class of electrochemical energy storage systems showing considerable promise for large-scale grid integration due to their unique aqueous organic chemistry. However, the use of small-molecule active materials in AORFBs is significantly limited by the [...] Read more.
Aqueous organic redox flow batteries (AORFBs) represent an advancing class of electrochemical energy storage systems showing considerable promise for large-scale grid integration due to their unique aqueous organic chemistry. However, the use of small-molecule active materials in AORFBs is significantly limited by the issue of stability and crossover. To address these challenges, we designed a high-water-solubility polymer cathode material, P-T-S, which features a polyvinylimidazole backbone functionalized with 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO) and sulfonate groups. P-T-S exhibits a solubility of 34 Ah L−1 in water and 31 Ah L−1 in 1.0 M NaCl aqueous solution (NaClaq). When paired with methyl viologen to assemble a pH-neutral AORFB with a theoretical capacity of 15 Ah L−1, the system exhibits a material utilization rate of 92.0%, an average capacity retention rate of 99.74% per cycle (99.74% per hour), and an average Coulombic efficiency of 98.69% over 300 consecutive cycles at 30 mA cm−2. This work provides a new design strategy for polymer materials for high-performance AORFBs. Full article
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17 pages, 4618 KiB  
Article
ANN-Enhanced Modulated Model Predictive Control for AC-DC Converters in Grid-Connected Battery Systems
by Andrea Volpini, Samuela Rokocakau, Giulia Tresca, Filippo Gemma and Pericle Zanchetta
Energies 2025, 18(15), 3996; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18153996 - 27 Jul 2025
Viewed by 261
Abstract
With the increasing integration of renewable energy sources (RESs) into power systems, batteries are playing a critical role in ensuring grid reliability and flexibility. Among them, vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) have emerged as a promising solution for large-scale storage due to their [...] Read more.
With the increasing integration of renewable energy sources (RESs) into power systems, batteries are playing a critical role in ensuring grid reliability and flexibility. Among them, vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) have emerged as a promising solution for large-scale storage due to their long cycle life, scalability, and deep discharge capability. However, achieving optimal control and system-level integration of VRFBs requires accurate, real-time modeling and parameter estimation, challenging tasks given the multi-physics nature and time-varying dynamics of such systems. This paper presents a lightweight physics-informed neural network (PINN) framework tailored for VRFBs, which directly embeds the discrete-time state-space dynamics into the network architecture. The model simultaneously predicts terminal voltage and estimates five discrete-time physical parameters associated with RC dynamics and internal resistance, while avoiding hidden layers to enhance interpretability and computational efficiency. The resulting PINN model is integrated into a modulated model predictive control (MMPC) scheme for a dual-stage DC-AC converter interfacing the VRFB with low-voltage AC grids. Simulation and hardware-in-the-loop results demonstrate that adaptive tuning of the PINN-estimated parameters enables precise tracking of battery parameter variations, thereby improving the robustness and performance of the MMPC controller under varying operating conditions. Full article
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11 pages, 3750 KiB  
Article
Metal–Organic Framework-Based Membranes with High Selectivity for Non-Aqueous Redox Flow Battery
by Lifang Zhu, Donghan Xu, Yongdan Li and Cuijuan Zhang
Processes 2025, 13(7), 2127; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072127 - 4 Jul 2025
Viewed by 345
Abstract
The advancement of non-aqueous redox flow batteries (NARFBs) remains significantly constrained by the absence of membranes with sufficient ionic selectivity and chemical compatibility. Herein, we fabricated flexible membranes incorporating metal–organic framework (MOF) via a solution casting approach. The rigid framework structure of the [...] Read more.
The advancement of non-aqueous redox flow batteries (NARFBs) remains significantly constrained by the absence of membranes with sufficient ionic selectivity and chemical compatibility. Herein, we fabricated flexible membranes incorporating metal–organic framework (MOF) via a solution casting approach. The rigid framework structure of the MOF effectively suppresses membrane swelling in organic solvents. The appropriate structural pore of MOF enables a size-sieving effect toward redox-active materials and supporting electrolyte, thereby reducing material crossover and enhancing the ionic selectivity of the composite membranes. The batteries with the designed composite membranes exhibit a Coulombic efficiency of higher than 99% and significantly improved cycling stability at 10 mA cm−2. The membrane design strategy, employing MOF materials with a structural pore size between the molecular size of the supporting electrolyte and active materials, is universal for NARFB. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Materials Processes)
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26 pages, 2553 KiB  
Article
Algorithms for Simulation of Shunt Currents in a Vanadium Redox Flow Battery
by Decebal Aitor Ispas-Gil, Ekaitz Zulueta, Javier Olarte and Jose Manuel Lopez-Guede
Algorithms 2025, 18(7), 397; https://doi.org/10.3390/a18070397 - 28 Jun 2025
Viewed by 195
Abstract
This paper presents an algorithm for the implementation of a model that calculates shunt currents in redox flow batteries. The formation patterns of the equivalent electrical circuit that models shunt currents in redox flow batteries are analyzed in such a way that the [...] Read more.
This paper presents an algorithm for the implementation of a model that calculates shunt currents in redox flow batteries. The formation patterns of the equivalent electrical circuit that models shunt currents in redox flow batteries are analyzed in such a way that the proposed algorithm is applicable for batteries with any number of cell stacks and any number of cells per stack. Linear algebra is applied to solve the equation system related to the equivalent electric circuit. The solution of such a system of equations is obtained by performing the inverse of a matrix and premultiplying that matrix on both sides of the equation system. This being rather trivial, the real problem lies in automating the generation of the matrices relative to the system of equations. For this reason, it is analyzed how to generate the matrixes in order to facilitate the implementation of their generation. Finally, the most important parts of the implementation of the resolution algorithm are shown. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Algorithms for Multidisciplinary Applications)
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33 pages, 3769 KiB  
Article
Hybrid Wind–Redox Flow Battery System for Decarbonizing Off-Grid Mining Operations
by Armel Robert, Baby-Jean Robert Mungyeko Bisulandu, Adrian Ilinca and Daniel R. Rousse
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(13), 7147; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15137147 - 25 Jun 2025
Viewed by 342
Abstract
Transitioning to sustainable energy systems is crucial for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, especially in remote industrial operations where diesel generators remain the dominant power source. This study examines the feasibility of integrating a redox flow battery (RFB) storage system to optimize wind [...] Read more.
Transitioning to sustainable energy systems is crucial for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, especially in remote industrial operations where diesel generators remain the dominant power source. This study examines the feasibility of integrating a redox flow battery (RFB) storage system to optimize wind energy utilization at the Raglan mining site in northern Canada, with the goal of reducing diesel dependency, enhancing grid stability, and improving energy security. To evaluate the effectiveness of this hybrid system, a MATLAB R2024b-based simulation model was developed, incorporating wind energy forecasting, load demand analysis, and economic feasibility assessments across multiple storage and wind penetration scenarios. Results indicate that deploying 12 additional E-115 wind turbines combined with a 20 MW/160 MWh redox flow battery system could lead to diesel savings of up to 63.98%, reducing CO2 emissions by 68,000 tonnes annually. However, the study also highlights a key economic challenge: the high Levelized Cost of Storage (LCOS) of CAD (Canadian dollars) 7831/MWh, which remains a barrier to large-scale implementation. For the scenario with high diesel economy, the LCOS was found to be CAD 6110/MWh, and the corresponding LCOE was CAD 590/MWh. While RFB integration improves system reliability, its economic viability depends on key factors, including reductions in electrolyte costs, advancements in operational efficiency, and supportive policy frameworks. This study presents a comprehensive methodology for evaluating energy storage in off-grid industrial sites and identifies key challenges in scaling up renewable energy adoption for remote mining operations. Full article
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14 pages, 2082 KiB  
Article
A Bipyridine-Ester Dual-Modified 2,2,6,6-Tetramethylpiperidin-1-oxyl Derivative for Aqueous Organic Redox Flow Batteries
by Qianqian Zheng, Yanwen Ren, Cuicui He, Jingjing Nie and Binyang Du
Materials 2025, 18(12), 2770; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18122770 - 12 Jun 2025
Viewed by 525
Abstract
The transition to renewable energy makes energy storage crucial. Aqueous organic redox flow batteries (AORFBs) show great potential in large-scale energy storage due to their outstanding safety compared to conventional systems. Derivatives of 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-1-oxyl (TEMPO) show significant promise as catholyte materials in AORFBs. [...] Read more.
The transition to renewable energy makes energy storage crucial. Aqueous organic redox flow batteries (AORFBs) show great potential in large-scale energy storage due to their outstanding safety compared to conventional systems. Derivatives of 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-1-oxyl (TEMPO) show significant promise as catholyte materials in AORFBs. In this work, a bipyridine-ester dual-modified TEMPO derivative, (2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy)carbonyl-ethyl-(4-(pyridin-4-yl)benzyl) ammonium bromide (TEMP-BPy) was successfully synthesized via a two-step functionalization. The synthesized compound was experimentally confirmed to possess excellent electrochemical stability. The electron-withdrawing effect of the 4,4′-bipyridine moiety elevates the redox potential by 60 mV. When implemented as a catholyte paired with methyl viologen (MV) as the anolyte in AORFB, the TEMP-BPy/MV system demonstrates excellent performance: achieving a cell voltage of 1.28 V and an energy density of 14.5 Wh L−1 at a 0.6 M (16.08 Ah L−1) concentration with 71.3% material utilization. Notably, it demonstrates exceptional cycling stability with an average capacity retention of 99.86% per cycle over 200 cycles, and it exhibits particularly impressive initial stability, with an average capacity retention of 99.997% per cycle during the first 100 cycles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Electronic Materials)
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18 pages, 1773 KiB  
Article
Tuning Solvation Dynamics of Electrolytes at Their Eutectic Point Through Halide Identity
by Rathiesh Pandian, Benworth B. Hansen, Giselle de Araujo Lima e Souza, Joshua R. Sangoro, Steven Greenbaum and Clemens Burda
Molecules 2025, 30(10), 2113; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30102113 - 9 May 2025
Viewed by 544
Abstract
Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) are regarded as highly promising solvent systems for redox flow batteries. DESs, composed of choline halides (ChX, X = F, Cl, Br, I) and ethylene glycol (EG), exhibit distinct physicochemical properties [...] Read more.
Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) are regarded as highly promising solvent systems for redox flow batteries. DESs, composed of choline halides (ChX, X = F, Cl, Br, I) and ethylene glycol (EG), exhibit distinct physicochemical properties at their eutectic points, including halide-dependent phase behavior, viscosity, polarity, conductivity, and solvation dynamics. In this study, we investigate the effects of the halide identity on the solvation properties of ChX:EG mixtures at varying mol % of ChX salt content. The solvatochromic polarity based on ET(30) measurements indicates higher polarity for larger halides (I > Br) than for smaller halides (Cl > F), which exhibit larger compensating solvation shells. The ionic conductivity follows the trend of the solvent fluidity (the inverse of the viscosity), namely ChCl > ChBr > ChI > ChF, influenced by the ion mobility and solvodynamic radii. Measurements of the liquidus temperatures (TL) reveal that the system with ChCl exhibits the deepest eutectic point (at ~20 mol % ChCl), while ChBr and ChI have shallower minima at ~10 mol % ChBr and ~3 mol % ChI, respectively. ChF does not display a eutectic transition but instead appears to readily supercool at salt concentrations above 30 mol % ChF. Consistent with the phase transition measurements, femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy shows that in the ChCl system, the solvation dynamics become faster with an increasing salt concentration up to ~16.67 mol %, after which the dynamics slow down with further increases in the salt content. The ChF-based system exhibits similar behavior, though with slower dynamics. In contrast, the solvation dynamics of the systems containing ChBr and ChI monotonously slow down with an increasing salt concentration, in agreement with the phase transition measurements, which show that the eutectic points occur at low salt concentrations. These measurements suggest that the solvent composition and, in particular, the identity of the halide anion play a significant role in the solvation behavior of these ethylene-glycol-based DESs, offering a foundation for tuning the DES properties for specific applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exclusive Feature Papers in Physical Chemistry, 3nd Edition)
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20 pages, 4221 KiB  
Article
Exploring the Flow and Mass Transfer Characteristics of an All-Iron Semi-Solid Redox Flow Battery
by Heyao Li, Zhuqian Zhang, Haojie Zhang and Yuchen Zhou
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040166 - 21 Apr 2025
Viewed by 518
Abstract
To improve the flow mass transfer inside the electrodes and the efficiency of an all-iron redox flow battery, a semi-solid all-iron redox flow battery is presented experimentally. A slurry electrode is designed to replace the traditional porous electrode. Moreover, the effects of an [...] Read more.
To improve the flow mass transfer inside the electrodes and the efficiency of an all-iron redox flow battery, a semi-solid all-iron redox flow battery is presented experimentally. A slurry electrode is designed to replace the traditional porous electrode. Moreover, the effects of an additional external magnetic field are further investigated in the semi-solid battery experiment. The results show that the mass transfer of the slurry in the battery flow channel and the prolonged discharge time are significantly affected by the additional external magnetic fields. In addition, a three-dimensional model of the semi-solid all-iron redox flow battery is presented in detail, and it is verified to be reliable by experimental data. The simulation results show that the ion concentration distributions in the battery become more uniform with the increase in the flow rate and the initial concentration. Furthermore, it is also found that the size of the flow channel influences the mass transfer efficiency of the slurry. After optimizing the flow channel, it is found that when the flow channel length of the slurry inlet and outlet section is 2 cm, the operating efficiency of the semi-solid battery shows an increasing trend. This work provides comprehensive insight into the improvement of the performances of flow batteries, which will be conducive to the practical application of flow batteries. Full article
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20 pages, 17600 KiB  
Article
Effects of the Intrinsic Structures of Graphite Felt and Carbon Cloth on the Working Condition of Iron-Chromium Redox Flow Batteries
by Jun Tian, Chuanyu Sun, Bowen Qu, Huan Zhang, Shuqi Liu, Meiqi Fei and Shuang Yan
Catalysts 2025, 15(4), 399; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15040399 - 19 Apr 2025
Viewed by 417
Abstract
The design parameters of large-scale iron-chromium redox flow batteries (ICRFB) encompass a wide range of internal and external operational conditions, including electrodes, membranes, flow rate, and temperature, among others. Among these factors, the intrinsic structures of graphite felt (GF) and carbon cloth (CC) [...] Read more.
The design parameters of large-scale iron-chromium redox flow batteries (ICRFB) encompass a wide range of internal and external operational conditions, including electrodes, membranes, flow rate, and temperature, among others. Among these factors, the intrinsic structures of graphite felt (GF) and carbon cloth (CC) play a pivotal role in determining the overall working conditions of ICRFBs. This study systematically investigates the multifaceted relationship between the intrinsic structure of the GF and CC and their impact on the operational performance of ICRFBs. The fundamental difference between the two types of electrodes lies in the intrinsic structure space available in them for electrolyte penetration. A systematic analysis of the structure–activity relation between the electrodes and the initial internal resistance, as well as the operating temperature of the cell, was performed. Additionally, the influence of the electrode structure on critical parameters, including the flow rate, membrane selection (Nafion 212 and Nafion 115), and performance of electrodeposition catalysts (bismuth and indium), is examined in detail. Under varying operating conditions, the intrinsic structures of GF and CC turn out to be a crucial factor, providing a robust basis for electrode selection and performance optimization in large-scale ICRFB systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Catalytic Materials)
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16 pages, 2090 KiB  
Article
Modeling an All-Copper Redox Flow Battery for Microgrid Applications: Impact of Current and Flow Rate on Capacity Fading and Deposition
by Mirko D’Adamo, Wouter Badenhorst, Lasse Murtomäki, Paula Cordoba, Mohamed Derbeli, Jose A. Saez-Zamora and Lluís Trilla
Energies 2025, 18(8), 2084; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18082084 - 17 Apr 2025
Viewed by 440
Abstract
The copper redox flow battery (CuRFB) stands out as a promising hybrid redox flow battery technology, offering significant advantages in electrolyte stability. Within the CuBER H-2020 project framework, this study addresses critical phenomena such as electrodeposition at the negative electrode during charging and [...] Read more.
The copper redox flow battery (CuRFB) stands out as a promising hybrid redox flow battery technology, offering significant advantages in electrolyte stability. Within the CuBER H-2020 project framework, this study addresses critical phenomena such as electrodeposition at the negative electrode during charging and copper crossover through the membrane, which influence capacity fading. A comprehensive two-dimensional physicochemical model of the CuRFB cell was developed using COMSOL Multiphysics, providing insights into the distribution of electroactive materials over time. The model was validated against experimental cycling data, demonstrating a Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) of 0.0212 in voltage estimation. Least-squares parameter estimation, utilizing Bound Optimization by Quadratic Approximation, was conducted to determine active material diffusivities and electron transfer coefficients. The results indicate that higher current densities and lower flow rates lead to increased copper deposition near the inlet, significantly impacting the battery’s State of Health (SoH). These findings highlight the importance of considering fluid dynamics and ion concentration distribution to improve battery performance and longevity. The study’s insights are crucial for optimizing and scaling up CuRFB operations, guiding potential cell-scale-up strategies into stack-level configurations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Power Quality and Hosting Capacity in the Microgrids)
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20 pages, 15674 KiB  
Article
Binder-Free Fe-N-C-O Bifunctional Electrocatalyst in Nickel Foam for Aqueous Zinc–Air Batteries
by Jorge González-Morales, Jadra Mosa and Mario Aparicio
Batteries 2025, 11(4), 159; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040159 - 17 Apr 2025
Viewed by 941
Abstract
The development of efficient, sustainable, and cost-effective catalysts is crucial for energy storage technologies, such as zinc–air batteries (ZABs). These batteries require bifunctional catalysts capable of efficiently and selectively catalyzing oxygen redox reactions. However, the high cost and low selectivity of conventional catalysts [...] Read more.
The development of efficient, sustainable, and cost-effective catalysts is crucial for energy storage technologies, such as zinc–air batteries (ZABs). These batteries require bifunctional catalysts capable of efficiently and selectively catalyzing oxygen redox reactions. However, the high cost and low selectivity of conventional catalysts hinder the large-scale integration of ZABs into the electric grid. This study presents binder-free Fe-based bifunctional electrocatalysts synthesized via a sol–gel method, followed by thermal treatment under ammonia flow. Supported on nickel foam, the catalyst exhibits enhanced activity for both the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER), essential for ZAB operation. This work addresses two critical challenges in the development of ZABs: first, the replacement of costly cobalt or platinum-group-metal (PGM)-based catalysts with an efficient alternative; second, the achievement of prolonged battery performance under real conditions without passivation. Structural analysis confirms the integration of iron nitrides, oxides, and carbon, resulting in high conductivity and catalytic stability without relying on precious or cobalt-based metals. Electrochemical tests reveal that the catalyst calcined at 800 °C delivers superior performance, achieving a four-electron ORR mechanism and prolonged operational life compared to its 900 °C counterpart. Both catalysts outperform conventional Pt/C-RuO2 systems in stability and selective bifunctionality, offering a more sustainable and cost-effective alternative. The innovative combination of nitrogen, carbon, and iron compounds overcomes limitations associated with traditional materials, paving the way for scalable, high-performance applications in renewable energy storage. This work underscores the potential of transition metal-based catalysts in advancing the commercial viability of ZABs. Full article
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21 pages, 2276 KiB  
Article
Empirical Study on Cost–Benefit Evaluation of New Energy Storage in Typical Grid-Side Business Models: A Case Study of Hebei Province
by Guang Tian, Penghui Liu, Yang Yang, Bin Che, Yuanying Chi and Junqi Wang
Energies 2025, 18(8), 2082; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18082082 - 17 Apr 2025
Viewed by 562
Abstract
Energy storage technology is a critical component in supporting the construction of new power systems and promoting the low-carbon transformation of the energy system. Currently, new energy storage in China is in a pivotal transition phase from research and demonstration to the initial [...] Read more.
Energy storage technology is a critical component in supporting the construction of new power systems and promoting the low-carbon transformation of the energy system. Currently, new energy storage in China is in a pivotal transition phase from research and demonstration to the initial stage of commercialization. However, it still faces numerous challenges, including incomplete business models, inadequate institutional policies, and unclear cost and revenue recovery mechanisms, particularly on the generation and grid sides. Therefore, this paper focuses on grid-side new energy storage technologies, selecting typical operational scenarios to analyze and compare their business models. Based on the lifecycle assessment method and techno-economic theories, the costs and benefits of various new energy storage technologies are compared and analyzed. This study aims to provide rational suggestions and incentive policies to enhance the technological maturity and economic feasibility of grid-side energy storage, improve cost recovery mechanisms, and promote the sustainable development of power grids. The results indicate that grid-side energy storage business models are becoming increasingly diversified, with typical models including shared leasing, spot market arbitrage, capacity price compensation, unilateral dispatch, and bilateral trading. From the perspectives of economic efficiency and technological maturity, lithium-ion batteries exhibit significant advantages in enhancing renewable energy consumption due to their low initial investment, high returns, and fast response. Compressed air and vanadium redox flow batteries excel in long-duration storage and cycle life. While molten salt and hydrogen storage face higher financial risks, they show prominent potential in cross-seasonal storage and low-carbon transformation. The sensitivity analysis indicates that the peak–valley electricity price differential and the unit investment cost of installed capacity are the key variables influencing the economic viability of grid-side energy storage. The charge–discharge efficiency and storage lifespan affect long-term returns, while technological advancements and market optimization are expected to further enhance the economic performance of energy storage systems, promoting their commercial application in electricity markets. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Planning from the Perspective of Sustainability)
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14 pages, 1980 KiB  
Article
Regulating the Structures of Carbon Cloth and Carbon Nanotubes to Boost the Positive Electrode Reaction of Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries
by Xinyu Huang, Chuanyu Sun, Shuqi Liu, Bangsen Zhao, Mingming Ge and Huan Zhang
Catalysts 2025, 15(4), 345; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal15040345 - 1 Apr 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 555
Abstract
Considering the various morphologies of carbon nanotubes (CNTs), it is expected to solve the contradiction between concentration polarization and electrochemical polarization in vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs). This paper investigates the structural evolution of CNTs grown on the surface of thermally oxidized carbon [...] Read more.
Considering the various morphologies of carbon nanotubes (CNTs), it is expected to solve the contradiction between concentration polarization and electrochemical polarization in vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs). This paper investigates the structural evolution of CNTs grown on the surface of thermally oxidized carbon cloth (TCC) and their impact on the performance of VRFBs. The morphological results indicate that thermal oxidation treatment forms pores on the surface of the TCC, providing nucleation sites for CNT growth. Spiral-shaped CNTs (TCC@s-CNTs) were formed in a short growth time (1 h), and their high defect density originated from the non-steady-state supply of carbon sources and the dynamic behavior of the catalyst. While 3 h of growth forms a network structure (TCC@n-CNT), the van der Waals force drives the self-assembly of its three-dimensional network. Although the TCC@s-CNT exhibits high catalytic activity due to its high defect density and edge active sites, the performance of VRFBs is more dependent on the three-dimensional conductive network of the TCC@n-CNT. At 240 mA/cm2, the energy efficiency (EE) of a VRFB assembled with the TCC@n-CNT reaches 71%, and the capacity retention rate is 15% higher than that of the TCC@s-CNT. This work reveals the synergistic mechanism of CNT morphology regulation on electrode performance and provides theoretical guidance for the design of VRFB electrodes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Catalysis for Sustainable Energy)
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18 pages, 6581 KiB  
Article
Graphite Felt Decorated with Metal–Organic Framework-Derived Nanocomposite as Cathode for Vanadium Redox Flow Battery
by Priya Lakshmanan, Chia-Hung Huang, Suba Devi Rengapillai, Yong-Song Chen, Wei-Ren Liu, Cheng-Liang Hsu and Sivakumar Marimuthu
Nanomaterials 2025, 15(7), 535; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15070535 - 1 Apr 2025
Viewed by 673
Abstract
Fabricating electrodes with high electrocatalytic efficiency is crucial for the commercial feasibility of vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs). In this study, metal–organic framework-derived ZnO and Fe2O3 with a high specific surface area were successfully synthesized via high-energy ball milling. The [...] Read more.
Fabricating electrodes with high electrocatalytic efficiency is crucial for the commercial feasibility of vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs). In this study, metal–organic framework-derived ZnO and Fe2O3 with a high specific surface area were successfully synthesized via high-energy ball milling. The nanocomposite material (ZnO-Fe2O3) was prepared through ultrasonication and coated on the graphite felt using dip coating, serving as the positive electrode for the VRFB. These modified electrodes control polarization losses, leading to high voltage efficiency (VE) and energy efficiency (EE), even at high current densities. Consequently, the nanocomposite-modified electrode shows VE of 87% and EE of 84% at 50 mA/cm2, surpassing the performance of individual materials. The nanocomposite material retains its EE without degradation over 250 cycles at a current density of 150 mA/cm2. This enhanced performance is due to improved kinetics and reduced losses in the VO2+/VO2+ redox couple, enabled by the nanocomposite material. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section 2D and Carbon Nanomaterials)
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