Search Results (697)

Background/Objectives: Many products that claim to have anti-aging effects have been reported, but their relative potency is not clear. In this study, the in vitro replicative lifespan extension (RLE) activity of various groups of physiologically active substances was compared by using the updated “overlay method”. Methods: Human dermal and periodontal ligament fibroblasts (HDFa, HPLF) were inoculated into the inner 60 wells of 96-well microplate, surround by sterile water to prevent the water evaporation. At Day 1 and Day 8, the cells were overlayed with wide ranges of concentrations (0.01–100 µM) of samples without medium change. Viable cell number was measured by the MTT method at Day 15 and then corrected for the variation in cell growth due to the location of inoculated cells. The RLE value was calculated as the maximum cell proliferation rate relative to the control. Results: Cell density of HDFa and HPLFs at subculture decreased with the passage number, and their growth was stopped at 56 or 85 population doubling levels (PDLs), respectively. Hydrocortisone showed the highest RLE values among six hormones, followed by three plant extracts, sodium ascorbate and quercetin. On the other hand, other antioxidants, chlorogenic acid, phenylpropanoids, vanilloids, and bacterial products showed little or no RLE effects. However, for HPLF cells, hydrocortisone did not show RLE effects while oxytocin showed slight stimulation. Conclusions: When differences in proliferation due to cell seeding position were corrected, the biphasic dose response curve of most of the compounds significantly reduced. The present study suggests the significant role of hormones for the regulation of the long-term aging process. To confirm systemic or clinical anti-aging effects, further in vitro and in vivo experiments are needed. Full article

Bitter compounds may function not only as taste substances but also as important active constituents mediating therapeutic effects. Their recognition is primarily mediated by bitter taste receptors (TAS2Rs), which exert pharmacological effects, such as regulating glucose metabolism, anti-inflammatory properties, and immune modulation, aligning closely with the therapeutic effects of bitter Chinese herbal medicine (BCHM). Contemporary pharmacological research has increasingly underscored the therapeutic potential of bitter traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), particularly through their bioactive constituents in the prevention and treatment of diverse pathological conditions. Here, we systematically review the diversity of bitter compounds from TCM and features of TAS2Rs, including their tissue distribution, physiological functions, structural characteristics, signal transduction mechanisms, and single-nucleotide polymorphisms. While numerous bitter phytochemicals have been characterized as agonists of TAS2Rs, the precise physiological functions and underlying molecular mechanisms mediated by TAS2R activation remain incompletely elucidated. This knowledge gap is largely attributable to several methodological and biological challenges, including the widespread tissue distribution of TAS2Rs, the complexity of their downstream signaling cascades, and the structural and functional heterogeneity of bitter compounds. This review outlines theoretical foundations, future perspectives and challenges for the drug development of TAS2R from BCHM. Full article

Primula vulgaris possesses considerable edible, medicinal, and ornamental value. It is widely applied in food and pharmaceutical development and, as an early-spring flowering plant, is used in landscaping. However, its range of applications and scope are significantly limited due to its inability to withstand high temperatures. This study aimed to investigate the heat tolerance of P. vulgaris under natural high temperatures during summer, identify the most heat-resistant varieties, and determine the optimal conditions for summer outdoor cultivation. Eight P. vulgaris varieties were selected and placed under forest shade with three different shading rates during the summer high-temperature period. Additionally, the heat damage index and the following six physiological indicators were measured: malondialdehyde (MDA) content, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, peroxidase (POD) activity, soluble sugar content, soluble protein content, and relative conductivity. Furthermore, a correlation analysis of the physiological indicators was conducted, and a heat tolerance evaluation was performed using the membership function method. Simultaneously, qRT-PCR was employed to analyze the expression patterns of three heat stress-related genes (PvHSP70, PvNCED6, and PvHSF24) across the different cultivars and experimental sites. Under heat stress conditions, leaf area was found to be positively and highly significantly correlated with stomatal density (p < 0.01). The heat damage index, MDA content, and relative conductivity increased significantly with prolonged stress, and they showed highly significant positive correlations. SOD activity, soluble sugar content, and soluble protein content increased to resist heat damage, while POD activity exhibited no consistent trend. Highly significant positive correlations were observed among protective enzyme activities and osmotic regulatory substances. After a comprehensive evaluation, the eight varieties were ranked according to heat tolerance as follows: “Early Punas Yellow” > “Danova Red” > “Middle Punas Rose Red” > “Middle Punas Blue” > “Middle Punas Red” > “Danova Rose White” > “Middle Punas Crimson” > “Middle Punas Scarlet”. Conclusions: “Early Punas Yellow”, “Danova Red”, and “Middle Punas Rose Red” demonstrated strong heat tolerance. In addition, the expression of PvHSP70 and PvHSF24 was significantly upregulated in heat-tolerant cultivars, while that of PvNCED6 showed a sustained increasing trend with rising temperatures. The results of a three-way ANOVA suggested that P. vulgaris exhibited different regulatory patterns among various traits under natural high-temperature stress. Morphological and integrative damage-related indicators, including leaf area, stomatal density, and the heat damage index, all presented significant “site × time” interaction effects. Meanwhile, some physiological regulatory indicators displayed more complex and inconsistent response patterns. These findings further confirm that a dense forest understory grassland is an ideal environment for the summer outdoor cultivation of P. vulgaris. Full article

Background/Objectives: Syringa vulgaris L. (common lilac) is one of the most popular ornamental plant species. Through the ages, many parts of S. vulgaris, including fruits, flowers, leaves, and branches, have been used in folk medicine due to their beneficial biological activity. Lilac flowers are the basis of many supplements available on the market. Moreover, its petals and flowers are edible and are an aromatic ingredient in preserves and desserts. However, the data about the antioxidant properties of various parts of S. vulgaris is limited only to the in vitro antioxidant capacity of the extracts—so far, the effect of S. vulgaris flower extract on the parameters of oxidative stress in biological materials, including plasma, has not been demonstrated. Therefore, the aim of our study was to investigate the protective effects of the extract from S. vulgaris L. flowers against oxidative stress in human plasma, and its influence on the coagulation process in vitro. Methods: We measured the levels of three parameters of oxidative stress in human plasma treated with H₂O₂/Fe²⁺ (the donor of hydroxyl radicals): lipid peroxidation (based on the level of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS)), protein carbonylation, and thiol oxidation. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) was used as a reference antioxidant. In addition, we studied the effect of the extract on three coagulation parameters of human plasma-activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), prothrombin time (PT), and thrombin time (TT). We also compared the biological properties of the extract from S. vulgaris flowers with the properties of a phenolic extract from Taraxacum officinalis (dandelion) flowers, as they have proven antioxidant activity in both in vitro and in vivo models and can modulate hemostasis in vitro. Results: Our UHPLC-HRMS analyses of S. vulgaris extract led to a tentative identification of 50 compounds, mainly phenolics and secoiridoids. For the first time, the present study demonstrated that the extract from S. vulgaris flowers (at the concentrations of 1–50 µg/mL) significantly reduced plasma lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation induced by H₂O₂/Fe²⁺. Moreover, the concentrations of 1–25 µg/mL significantly reduced the oxidation of thiol groups in plasma treated with H₂O₂/Fe²⁺. The anticoagulant tests also demonstrated that S. vulgaris flowers extract, at physiologically relevant concentrations (1–50 µg/mL), did not affect blood clotting times in vitro, suggesting that it is hemostatically safe. Conclusions: Despite the differences in composition, the extracts from lilac flowers and dandelion flowers exhibited similar protective effects against oxidative damage to human plasma components. However, the extract from S. vulgaris flowers had a stronger inhibitory effect on lipid peroxidation than the extract from dandelion flowers. Full article

Background/Objectives: Adaptogens are plant-derived substances that enhance the body’s nonspecific resistance to physical, chemical, biological, and psychological stressors by normalizing physiological functions. This article discusses the molecular mechanisms of action of seven key plant adaptogens—Rhodiola rosea, Schisandra chinensis, Withania somnifera, Eleutherococcus senticosus, Panax ginseng, Ocimum tenuiflorum, and Bacopa monnieri—in the context of chronic stress and lifestyle-related diseases. Methods: A review of the scientific literature is performed, including preclinical in vitro and in vivo studies, randomized placebo-controlled clinical trials, and studies employing network pharmacology analyses, molecular docking, and genomic techniques such as gene expression profiling. The interactions of active constituents with signaling pathways, molecular targets, and synergistic mechanisms were analyzed based on publications from the years 2010–2025. Results: Adaptogens exhibit pleiotropic activity: they regulate the HPA axis (Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal axis); induce Hsp70/Hsp16 expression; modulate SAPK/JNK, FOXO, and NF-κB pathways; and demonstrate antioxidant and mitoprotective effects. Specific mechanisms include: salidroside from R. rosea activating PI3K/Akt; schizandrin B from S. chinensis stimulating Hsp70; withanolides from W. somnifera inhibiting PDE4D; ginsenosides from P. ginseng suppressing FKBP51; and bacosides from B. monnieri enhancing acetylcholine synthesis. Clinical studies confirm reductions in cortisol levels (14–30%), decreased fatigue, and improved cognitive function without adverse effects. Conclusions: Understanding the molecular mechanisms of adaptogens supports their application in integrative medicine for the treatment of stress-related disorders, depression, anxiety, and neurodegenerative diseases. Further clinical studies are needed to optimize dosages and standardize extracts. Full article

Saline–alkali stress is a severe abiotic factor that limits plant growth and development. Endophytic bacteria can improve plant tolerance to such stress through various mechanism, including osmoregulatory substance accumulation and antioxidant enzyme activity. In this study, four saline–alkali-tolerant endophytic strains, designated SYM-2, SYM-4, SYM-9, and SYM-15, were isolated from the roots of alfalfa grown in saline–alkali soil. Though 16S rDNA sequencing, morphological observations, and physiological–biochemical characterization, the strains were identified as closely related to Bacillus cereus, B. thuringiensis, B. halotolerans, and Pantoea agglomerans, respectively. These strains demonstrated the ability to produce 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase, siderophores, and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), as well as solubilizing phosphorus. Under saline–alkali conditions, inoculation with these strains significantly increased alfalfa growth parameters. Plant height increased by 4.07–33.90% and root length by 7.49–27.94%, and fresh and dry weight (both above and below ground) increased compared with the control. Strain SYM-15 showed the highest promoting effects, increasing plant height by 33.90%, root length by 27.94% and shoot dry weight by 59.26%. Additionally, root activity increased by 11.23–40%, proline content by 19.09–129–87%, and soluble protein by 7.71–42.49%, and the activities of catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were significantly elevated across treatments. At the same time, inoculation reduced the levels of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), superoxide anion (O₂⁻), and malondialdehyde (MDA). Compared with the control and other treatments, including SYM-9, the peroxidase activity and superoxide dismutase activity of alfalfa significantly increased after the SYM-15 treatment, while hydrogen peroxide content, phosphorus content, and neutral detergent fiber and acid detergent fiber contents decreased (p < 0.05). Therefore, SYM-15 plays an important role in promoting growth and represents a promising, high-quality strain resource for the large-scale development of microbials aimed at improving alfalfa tolerance under saline–alkali conditions. Full article

Optimizing drug administration remains a central challenge in the development of modern therapies, especially in the context of conditions that require spatiotemporal control of active substance release. In this context, hydrogels have been intensively investigated as polymeric platforms for drug delivery, through their three-dimensional hydrophilic structure, tunable properties, and compatibility with biological environments. This analysis presents an integrated approach to hydrogels used in drug administration, addressing the physicochemical fundamentals, the constitutive polymeric materials, and the mechanisms of response to relevant physiological stimuli. Recent experimental studies have been discussed, which highlight the use of hydrogels based on natural, synthetic, and hybrid polymers for controlled and targeted release, in correlation with various administration routes, including oral, injectable, transmucosal, and topical ones. Advanced functionalization strategies that allow adaptive responses to pH, temperature, glucose, enzymes, and reactive oxygen species are also analyzed. Furthermore, emerging directions integrating hydrogels with biosensors, microdevices, and wireless communication systems for real-time monitoring and on-demand release are highlighted. Overall, the analysis emphasizes the role of smart hydrogels as multifunctional platforms for complex therapeutic strategies while also underlining the current challenges associated with clinical translation and long-term performance. Full article

As emerging pollutants, nanoplastics (NPs) are profoundly threatening aquatic ecosystems. However, the systematic response mechanisms of aquatic floating macrophytes to NP stress and the mitigation strategies of nanoselenium (Se) remain poorly understood. This study used P. stratiotes, a dominant species in freshwater ecological restoration, as the research object. By intervening in NP stress via foliar application of Se, the study systematically deciphered the plant’s response and mitigation mechanisms to NPs pollution through integrating physiological and biochemical analyses, ultrastructural observation of cells, and transcriptomic and metabolomic multi-omics techniques. The results showed that NP stress significantly reduced photosynthetic pigment concentration and inhibited photosystem function in Pistia stratiotes L., disrupted energy metabolism homeostasis, and simultaneously induced an outburst of reactive oxygen species (ROS). It activated non-enzymatic antioxidant substances such as flavonoids and glutathione (GSH), as well as enzymatic defense systems including catalase (CAT) and peroxidase (POD), promoting the reprogramming of the plant’s metabolic strategy from growth priority to defense dominance. At the transcriptomic level, NP stress significantly altered the gene expression profile, with core pathways enriched in photosynthesis antenna proteins and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis. Metabolomic analysis revealed significant differences in metabolites, with markedly upregulated contents of defense-related metabolites such as lipids and terpenoids. The intervention of NPs-Se effectively restored photosynthetic pigment contents and enzyme activities, alleviated cell membrane damage by repairing the photosynthetic apparatus, optimizing ribosome-mediated protein synthesis pathways, and strengthening the antioxidant defense network. Meanwhile, it regulated the expression of specific genes and the accumulation of core differential metabolites, reconstructed the balance between energy supply and defense investment, enabling the plant to achieve more efficient adaptive regulation. Multi-omics correlation analysis further confirmed that the responses of P. stratiotes to NPs and NPs-Se exhibited characteristics of coordinated regulation, highlighting the modular regulatory patterns of nano-stress responses. In conclusion, Se can effectively alleviate the stress damage of nanoplastics to P. stratiotes through multi-dimensional regulation, providing a key experimental basis and theoretical support for the ecological restoration of NP-polluted water bodies and ecological risk assessment. Full article

Pomacea canaliculata, a pervasive invasive gastropod, inflicts significant ecological and economic damage in Chinese rice ecosystems. With the limitations of chemical molluscicides, sustainable biological control solutions are urgently required. This study presents a comprehensive investigation into the biocontrol potential of larvae of the endemic aquatic firefly, Aquatica leii, against Pomacea canaliculata. Through controlled laboratory experiments, we evaluated the feeding preference of larvae when offered a choice between Pomacea canaliculata and a native snail (Cipangopaludina chinensis), and systematically quantified the predatory efficiency (lethal time and consumption amount) across the 3rd to 6th larval instars. Furthermore, the lethal activity of crude extracts from distinct anatomical regions of the larval digestive tract (mouthpart, foregut, midgut, and hindgut) was assayed via injection into Pomacea canaliculata. The larvae accepted Pomacea canaliculata as a viable prey source. Predatory performance varied markedly among instars; 4th-instar larvae exhibited optimal efficacy, characterized by the shortest mean lethal time (7.37 min) and the highest mean consumption (1.23 g). Midgut extract was identified as the principal causative agent of mortality, inducing a 96.7% mortality rate in Pomacea canaliculata, which was significantly superior to the minimal effects observed from other extract types. This points to the midgut secretion as a likely source of potent bioactive compounds responsible for rapid snail lethality, warranting further investigation. responsible for rapid snail lethality. Our results conclusively demonstrate, from both behavioral and physiological vantage points, the feasibility of Aquatica leii larvae as a highly effective native biocontrol agent. This work establishes a critical foundation for future research aimed at the isolation and characterization of the midgut-specific active substances, paving the way for the development of novel, target-selective biogenic molluscicides. Full article

Bioretention systems are increasingly implemented as green infrastructure for urban stormwater management. However, their long-term performance is jeopardized by the continuous accumulation of potentially toxic metals in substrates and vegetation, posing significant risks to ecosystem health and human safety. Despite their growing application, the mechanisms driving metal dynamics and plant responses within these systems remain poorly understood. This study conducts a comprehensive multi-factor investigation into the accumulation, mobility, and biological impacts of four representative potentially toxic metals (Cd, Cu, Zn, and Pb) in bioretention soils and vegetation. Through controlled mesocosm experiments, we quantified metal concentrations in soils and three plant species, analyzed alterations in the physical and chemical properties of soil, and assessed plant physiological stress responses. Metal concentrations were measured using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and statistical analyses were conducted using one-way ANOVA (p < 0.05). Cadmium exhibited the highest enrichment, with plant uptake increasing by 330.0% to 563.2%, especially in Iris tectorum Maxim., which demonstrated superior phytoaccumulation potential. Conversely, Ophiopogon japonicus Ker Gawl. showed remarkable tolerance to metal-induced stress, maintaining stable levels of chlorophyll content, photosynthetic rate, peroxidase activity, and soluble sugar concentration. Notably, the incorporation of humic substances significantly enhanced metal immobilization in soil, while simultaneously reducing plant uptake and physiological stress, revealing a promising strategy for toxicity mitigation. By integrating the effects of plant species, substrate composition, and influent concentration, this study provides novel insights into the complex interactions governing pollutant fate in bioretention systems. The findings offer critical guidance for optimizing bioretention design and management to ensure sustained pollutant removal efficiency and ecological resilience in urban stormwater treatment. Full article

As climate change continues to alter rainfall patterns and precipitation regimes across the globe, waterlogging is emerging as a widespread and pressing issue that threatens agricultural productivity and food security. In this study, we investigated the potential of humic substances to mitigate waterlogging stress in cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.) seedlings. Specifically, humic acid and fulvic acid solutions were applied to the growth medium at weekly intervals both before and after a 10-day waterlogging period. The effects of humic acid and fulvic acid applications on waterlogging-induced stress were evaluated through various physiological and biochemical parameters, including shoot fresh weight, root fresh weight, shoot dry weight, root dry weight, plant height, stem diameter, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, proline, malondialdehyde, hydrogen peroxide, indole acetic acid, gibberellic acid, abscisic acid, and antioxidant enzyme activities including catalase, peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase. The results indicated that waterlogging stress significantly impaired plant growth parameters, but these adverse effects were mitigated by humic acid and fulvic acid applications. The humic substances contributed to stress tolerance by modulating key biochemical responses, including a shift in proline, hydrogen peroxide, malondialdehyde, abscisic acid, and antioxidant enzyme activity levels, which otherwise increased under stress conditions. Furthermore, the decline in indole acetic acid and gibberellic acid content due to waterlogging was alleviated by humic acid and fulvic acid treatments. Overall, the findings suggest that humic acid and fulvic acid can effectively reduce the detrimental effects of waterlogging stress in cabbage seedlings, demonstrating their potential as biostimulants with comparable protective effects. Full article

Satsuma mandarin is a non-climacteric fruit with limited storage potential, as dehydration and physiological stress can accelerate postharvest quality loss. This study evaluated the combined effects of hot-water dips (HWD; 48 °C or 52 °C for 3 min) and cold storage temperatures (1 °C or 3 °C for 8 weeks, followed by 7 days at 18–20 °C) on ‘Owari’ (Citrus unshiu Marc.) fruit quality and peel oxidative status. HWD reduced weight loss compared with untreated fruit at both temperatures, and total weight loss at 1 °C was 17.85% (HWD 48) and 18.27% (HWD 52), compared with 22.26% in the control. Storage at 1 °C reduced fruit weight loss compared with 3 °C, while fruit stored at 3 °C retained higher juiciness. Peel hydrogen peroxide level was lower at 1 °C, with the lowest value in HWD 48 fruit (5.56 nmol g⁻¹ FW). Lipid peroxidation increased after storage across treatments but was lowest in HWD 48 at 1 °C (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances 11.82 nmol g⁻¹ FW). HWD 48 at 1 °C also maintained the highest α-tocopherol level (411.18 µg g⁻¹ FW) and showed the highest catalase activity. Overall, HWD 48, combined with storage at 1 °C, provided the most favourable peel oxidative stability. However, the risk of chilling injury at low temperatures must be assessed using a defined scoring protocol before commercial recommendation. Full article

The neuronal cell adhesion molecule NrCAM is widely expressed in the nervous system across the lifespan and has important physiological functions in the development of neuronal circuits through axonal growth and guidance and formation and maintenance of synapses in the cortex. NrCAM gene polymorphisms are associated with vulnerability to neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, as well as vulnerability to substance use disorders. We investigated the effects of acute and chronic stress and the effects of systemic administration of AMPAR antagonist CNQX and NMDAR antagonist MK-801 on delay discounting in male NrCAM knockout (KO) mice and their wild-type littermate controls (WT). Under the no-stress condition, no discounting differences were found. Acute stress increased discounting and impulsivity in WTs but not in NrCAM KO mice. Chronic stress increased discounting and impulsivity in both genotypes. CNQX increased impulsive choice in WT controls but not in NrCAM KOs; impulsive choice decreased in both genotypes after MK-801 administration. Relative to WTs, NrCAM KOs had more neuronal activation in the prelimbic and orbitofrontal cortices. In NrCAM KO mice, a low dose of MK-801 decreased neuronal activation in the ventral orbitofrontal cortex and increased activation in the accumbens shell and core. These results indicate differential effects of genotype, stress, and response to glutamatergic drugs and support a role for NrCAM in stress-induced behavioral alterations relevant to addiction and psychiatric disorders. Full article

Elucidating the response mechanisms of seashore paspalum (Paspalum vaginatum) roots to salt stress is crucial for breeding salt-tolerant varieties. This study aimed to investigate the morphological, physiological, and surface electrochemical responses of seashore paspalum roots to salt stress. The salt-tolerant genotype Sealsle2000 and salt-sensitive genotype 17U-45 were subjected to 300 mM salt stress for 4 and 8 days. Results showed that salt stress exerted a more pronounced inhibitory effect on root growth than on shoot growth, with Sealsle2000 exhibiting less growth inhibition compared to 17U-45. Under salt stress, Sealsle2000 adsorbed more Na⁺ on the root surface and sequestered them within the roots than 17U-45; furthermore, Sealsle2000 was able to maintain higher K⁺/Na⁺ ratios. In terms of physiological mechanisms, Sealsle2000 maintained higher activities of superoxide dismutase and catalase, as well as elevated levels of osmotic adjustment substances (proline and soluble sugars) in roots, which collectively alleviated membrane lipid peroxidation damage and osmotic stress. Compared to 17U-45, Sealsle2000 possessed more negative charges and functional groups on the root surface, which contributed to its higher Na⁺ adsorption capacity and enhanced salt tolerance. Collectively, these findings establish a theoretical framework for understanding the salt tolerance mechanisms of seashore paspalum and other plants. Full article

Salt stress is a major abiotic factor limiting grapevine growth and yield. To elucidate the physiological and molecular regulatory mechanisms underlying salt tolerance in grapevine, this study used ‘Carménère’ (Vitis vinifera) and ‘Pinot Noir’ (Vitis vinifera) as experimental materials. Under 200 mmol/L NaCl stress, the physiological response characteristics of the two cultivars were systematically compared, and transcriptome sequencing combined with qRT-PCR analysis was conducted to explore the molecular basis of their differences in salt tolerance. The results showed that salt stress significantly impaired photosynthetic performance and disrupted cellular homeostasis in grapevine; however, the reductions in relative chlorophyll content (SPAD value), maximum photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (Fv/Fm), and photosynthetic performance were significantly smaller in ‘Carménère’ than in ‘Pinot Noir’, indicating greater stability of the photosynthetic apparatus in ‘Carménère’. Meanwhile, ‘Carménère’ maintained higher activities of antioxidant enzymes and higher levels of non-enzymatic antioxidants, effectively reducing reactive oxygen species accumulation and membrane lipid peroxidation. In addition, under salt stress, ‘Carménère’ accumulated greater amounts of osmotic adjustment substances and maintained lower Na⁺ content and higher K⁺ content, demonstrating a more efficient capacity for osmotic regulation and ion homeostasis. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that the plant hormone signal transduction, MAPK signaling, and glutathione metabolism pathways were significantly enriched in ‘Carménère’, with multiple key genes being coordinately upregulated under salt stress. Taken together, these findings indicate that ‘Carménère’ achieves enhanced salt tolerance through a multilayered signaling regulatory network that coordinates physiological defense responses. This study provides a theoretical basis for elucidating the mechanisms of salt tolerance in grapevine and for the molecular breeding of salt-tolerant cultivars. Full article