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Keywords = magnetic soft robots

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31 pages, 5480 KiB  
Review
Solid Core Magnetic Gear Systems: A Comprehensive Review of Topologies, Core Materials, and Emerging Applications
by Serkan Sezen, Kadir Yilmaz, Serkan Aktas, Murat Ayaz and Taner Dindar
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(15), 8560; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15158560 - 1 Aug 2025
Viewed by 456
Abstract
Magnetic gears (MGs) are attracting increasing attention in power transmission systems due to their contactless operation principles, low frictional losses, and high efficiency. However, the broad application potential of these technologies requires a comprehensive evaluation of engineering parameters, such as material selection, energy [...] Read more.
Magnetic gears (MGs) are attracting increasing attention in power transmission systems due to their contactless operation principles, low frictional losses, and high efficiency. However, the broad application potential of these technologies requires a comprehensive evaluation of engineering parameters, such as material selection, energy efficiency, and structural design. This review focuses solely on solid-core magnetic gear systems designed using laminated electrical steels, soft magnetic composites (SMCs), and high-saturation alloys. This review systematically examines the topological diversity, torque transmission principles, and the impact of various core materials, such as electrical steels, soft magnetic composites (SMCs), and cobalt-based alloys, on the performance of magnetic gear systems. Literature-based comparative analyses are structured around topological classifications, evaluation of material properties, and performance analyses based on losses. Additionally, the study highlights that aligning material properties with appropriate manufacturing methods, such as powder metallurgy, wire electrical discharge machining (EDM), and precision casting, is essential for the practical scalability of magnetic gear systems. The findings reveal that coaxial magnetic gears (CMGs) offer a favorable balance between high torque density and compactness, while soft magnetic composites provide significant advantages in loss reduction, particularly at high frequencies. Additionally, application trends in fields such as renewable energy, electric vehicles (EVs), aerospace, and robotics are highlighted. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Electrical, Electronics and Communications Engineering)
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20 pages, 4182 KiB  
Article
A Soft Reconfigurable Inverted Climbing Robot Based on Magneto-Elastica-Reinforced Elastomer
by Fuwen Hu, Bingyu Zhao and Wenyu Jiang
Micromachines 2025, 16(8), 855; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16080855 - 25 Jul 2025
Viewed by 377
Abstract
This work presents a novel type of soft reconfigurable mobile robot with multimodal locomotion, which is created using a controllable magneto-elastica-reinforced composite elastomer. The rope motor-driven method is employed to modulate magnetics–mechanics coupling effects and enable the magneto-elastica-reinforced elastomer actuator to produce controllable [...] Read more.
This work presents a novel type of soft reconfigurable mobile robot with multimodal locomotion, which is created using a controllable magneto-elastica-reinforced composite elastomer. The rope motor-driven method is employed to modulate magnetics–mechanics coupling effects and enable the magneto-elastica-reinforced elastomer actuator to produce controllable deformations. Furthermore, the 3D-printed magneto-elastica-reinforced elastomer actuators are assembled into several typical robotic patterns: linear configuration, parallel configuration, and triangular configuration. As a proof of concept, a few of the basic locomotive modes are demonstrated including squirming-type crawling at a speed of 1.11 mm/s, crawling with turning functions at a speed of 1.11 mm/s, and omnidirectional crawling at a speed of 1.25 mm/s. Notably, the embedded magnetic balls produce magnetic adhesion on the ferromagnetic surfaces, which enables the soft mobile robot to climb upside-down on ferromagnetic curved surfaces. In the experiment, the inverted ceiling-based inverted crawling speed is 2.17 mm/s, and the inverted freeform surface-based inverted crawling speed is 3.40 mm/s. As indicated by the experimental results, the proposed robot has the advantages of a simple structure, low cost, reconfigurable multimodal motion ability, and so on, and has potential application in the inspection of high-value assets and operations in confined environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Applications of Small-Scale Soft Robotics)
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62 pages, 4192 KiB  
Review
Advancements in Magnetorheological Foams: Composition, Fabrication, AI-Driven Enhancements and Emerging Applications
by Hesamodin Khodaverdi and Ramin Sedaghati
Polymers 2025, 17(14), 1898; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17141898 - 9 Jul 2025
Viewed by 654
Abstract
Magnetorheological (MR) foams represent a class of smart materials with unique tunable viscoelastic properties when subjected to external magnetic fields. Combining porous structures with embedded magnetic particles, these materials address challenges such as leakage and sedimentation, typically encountered in conventional MR fluids while [...] Read more.
Magnetorheological (MR) foams represent a class of smart materials with unique tunable viscoelastic properties when subjected to external magnetic fields. Combining porous structures with embedded magnetic particles, these materials address challenges such as leakage and sedimentation, typically encountered in conventional MR fluids while offering advantages like lightweight design, acoustic absorption, high energy harvesting capability, and tailored mechanical responses. Despite their potential, challenges such as non-uniform particle dispersion, limited durability under cyclic loads, and suboptimal magneto-mechanical coupling continue to hinder their broader adoption. This review systematically addresses these issues by evaluating the synthesis methods (ex situ vs. in situ), microstructural design strategies, and the role of magnetic particle alignment under varying curing conditions. Special attention is given to the influence of material composition—including matrix types, magnetic fillers, and additives—on the mechanical and magnetorheological behaviors. While the primary focus of this review is on MR foams, relevant studies on MR elastomers, which share fundamental principles, are also considered to provide a broader context. Recent advancements are also discussed, including the growing use of artificial intelligence (AI) to predict the rheological and magneto-mechanical behavior of MR materials, model complex device responses, and optimize material composition and processing conditions. AI applications in MR systems range from estimating shear stress, viscosity, and storage/loss moduli to analyzing nonlinear hysteresis, magnetostriction, and mixed-mode loading behavior. These data-driven approaches offer powerful new capabilities for material design and performance optimization, helping overcome long-standing limitations in conventional modeling techniques. Despite significant progress in MR foams, several challenges remain to be addressed, including achieving uniform particle dispersion, enhancing viscoelastic performance (storage modulus and MR effect), and improving durability under cyclic loading. Addressing these issues is essential for unlocking the full potential of MR foams in demanding applications where consistent performance, mechanical reliability, and long-term stability are crucial for safety, effectiveness, and operational longevity. By bridging experimental methods, theoretical modeling, and AI-driven design, this work identifies pathways toward enhancing the functionality and reliability of MR foams for applications in vibration damping, energy harvesting, biomedical devices, and soft robotics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)
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39 pages, 7348 KiB  
Review
Artificial Intelligence Control Methodologies for Shape Memory Alloy Actuators: A Systematic Review and Performance Analysis
by Stefano Rodinò, Giuseppe Rota, Matteo Chiodo, Antonio Corigliano and Carmine Maletta
Micromachines 2025, 16(7), 780; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16070780 - 30 Jun 2025
Viewed by 582
Abstract
Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) actuators are pivotal in modern engineering due to their unique thermomechanical properties, but their inherent non-linearities, hysteresis, and temperature sensitivity pose significant control challenges. This systematic review evaluates artificial intelligence (AI)-based control methodologies to address these limitations, analyzing their [...] Read more.
Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) actuators are pivotal in modern engineering due to their unique thermomechanical properties, but their inherent non-linearities, hysteresis, and temperature sensitivity pose significant control challenges. This systematic review evaluates artificial intelligence (AI)-based control methodologies to address these limitations, analyzing their efficacy in enhancing precision, adaptability, and reliability for SMA and Magnetic SMA (MSMA) systems. A PRISMA-guided literature review (2003–2025) identified 24 studies, which were categorized by control architectures (hybrid AI-linear, pure AI, adaptive, and model predictive control) and evaluated through quantitative metrics, including Root Mean Square Error (RMSE%) and a weighted scoring system for experimental rigor. Results revealed hybrid AI-linear controllers as the dominant approach (36%), with online-trained neural networks achieving superior accuracy (+2.4%) over offline methods. Feedforward neural networks outperformed recurrent architectures (+3.1%), while Model Predictive Control (MPC) excelled for SMA actuators (+5.8% accuracy) but underperformed for MSMAs (−7.7%). Sensorless strategies proved advantageous for MSMAs (+5.0%), leveraging intrinsic material properties like electrical resistance for state estimation. The analysis underscores AI’s capacity to mitigate hysteresis and non-linear dynamics, though material-specific optimization is critical: SMA systems favor dynamic control and MPC, whereas MSMAs benefit from sensorless AI and pure neural networks. Challenges persist in computational demands for online training and reinforcement learning’s exploration–exploitation trade-offs. Future research should prioritize adaptive algorithms for fatigue compensation, lightweight AI models for embedded deployment, and standardized benchmarking to bridge material-specific performance gaps. This synthesis establishes AI as a transformative paradigm for SMA actuation, enabling precise control in aerospace, biomedical, and soft robotics applications. Full article
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20 pages, 12065 KiB  
Article
Design and Optimization of a Tapered Magnetic Soft Continuum Robot for Enhanced Navigation in Cerebral Vasculature
by Jiahang Wang, Yuhang Liu, Xiwen Lu, Yunlong Zhu and Chenyao Bai
Micromachines 2025, 16(6), 701; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16060701 - 12 Jun 2025
Viewed by 1089
Abstract
Magnetic soft continuum robots (MSCRs) have broad application advantages in vascular intervention; however, current MSCRs still face challenges in navigating the narrower and tortuous structure of the cerebral vasculature. To address this challenge, we propose a tapered MSCR (T-MSCR), which is designed to [...] Read more.
Magnetic soft continuum robots (MSCRs) have broad application advantages in vascular intervention; however, current MSCRs still face challenges in navigating the narrower and tortuous structure of the cerebral vasculature. To address this challenge, we propose a tapered MSCR (T-MSCR), which is designed to facilitate smooth navigation through microvascular structures via its miniature tip. Specifically, to optimize its bending ability, we combine the Gray Wolf Optimizer (GWO) with the Euler–Bernoulli beam theory and introduce a Discrete GWO (DGWO) approach to optimize the distribution of magnetic particles within the T-MSCR. We then demonstrate the optimization process of the T-MSCR’s bending ability, comparing and analyzing its deflection angle and deformation characteristics, highlighting its capability to enter microvasculars. Furthermore, we demonstrate the magnetic steering and path selection capabilities of T-MSCR in a two-dimensional vascular model and its navigation performance in real-scale human vascular models. Finally, biocompatibility tests confirm that T-MSCR exhibits no toxicity to human cells, thereby laying a solid foundation for its clinical application. The proposed T-MSCR design and optimization are expected to provide a more efficient and feasible solution for future cerebrovascular interventions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section B:Biology and Biomedicine)
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54 pages, 19999 KiB  
Review
Hydrogel-Based Continuum Soft Robots
by Honghong Wang, Jingli Du and Yi Mao
Gels 2025, 11(4), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11040254 - 27 Mar 2025
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3173
Abstract
This paper comprehensively reviews the latest advances in hydrogel-based continuum soft robots. Hydrogels exhibit exceptional flexibility and adaptability compared to traditional robots reliant on rigid structures, making them ideal as biomimetic robotic skins and platforms for constructing highly accurate, real-time responsive sensory interfaces. [...] Read more.
This paper comprehensively reviews the latest advances in hydrogel-based continuum soft robots. Hydrogels exhibit exceptional flexibility and adaptability compared to traditional robots reliant on rigid structures, making them ideal as biomimetic robotic skins and platforms for constructing highly accurate, real-time responsive sensory interfaces. The article systematically summarizes recent research developments across several key dimensions, including application domains, fabrication methods, actuator technologies, and sensing mechanisms. From an application perspective, developments span healthcare, manufacturing, and agriculture. Regarding fabrication techniques, the paper extensively explores crosslinking methods, additive manufacturing, microfluidics, and other related processes. Additionally, the article categorizes and thoroughly discusses various hydrogel-based actuators responsive to solute/solvent variations, pH, chemical reactions, temperature, light, magnetic fields, electric fields, hydraulic/electro-osmotic stimuli, and humidity. It also details the strategies for designing and implementing diverse sensors, including strain, pressure, humidity, conductive, magnetic, thermal, gas, optical, and multimodal sensors. Finally, the paper offers an in-depth discussion of the prospective applications of hydrogel-based continuum soft robots, particularly emphasizing their potential in medical and industrial fields. Concluding remarks include a forward-looking outlook highlighting future challenges and promising research directions. Full article
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16 pages, 8312 KiB  
Article
3D-Printed Soft Bionic Inchworm Robot Powered by Magnetic Force
by Deli Xia, Luying Zhang, Weihang Nong, Qingshan Duan and Jiang Ding
Biomimetics 2025, 10(4), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics10040202 - 26 Mar 2025
Viewed by 640
Abstract
Based on soft body structure and unique gait of bending and stretching, Soft Bionic Inchworm Robots (SBIRs) are used in pipeline inspection and terrain exploration. Many existing SBIRs rely on complex production mechanisms and are cable-driven, which hinders rapid production and smooth movement [...] Read more.
Based on soft body structure and unique gait of bending and stretching, Soft Bionic Inchworm Robots (SBIRs) are used in pipeline inspection and terrain exploration. Many existing SBIRs rely on complex production mechanisms and are cable-driven, which hinders rapid production and smooth movement through complex environments, respectively. To address these challenges, this paper introduces a 3D-printed SBIR, featuring a 3D-printed body actuated by magnetic forces. We introduce the design and production process of the 3D-SBIR and analyze its motion gait. Subsequently, the material composition model and bending deformation model of the robot are developed based on the theory of hyper-elastic materials. The accuracy of the model is validated using simulation analysis and experimental testing of the robot. Meanwhile, we carry out a magnetic simulation analysis and discuss the factors influencing the size of the magnetic force. Finally, a series of experiments are conducted to prove the excellent locomotion capability of the robot. The 3D-SBIR demonstrates remarkable flexibility and multimodal movement capabilities. It can navigate through narrow curved passages with ease, passively overcome obstacles, climb steps up to 0.8 times its body height, and perform a seamless transition while moving across a horizontal plane onto a vertical plane. The 3D-SBIR proposed in this paper is characterized by rapid production, cable-free actuation, and multimodal motion capabilities, making it well suited for moving in unstructured environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Inspired Soft Robotics: Design, Fabrication and Applications)
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21 pages, 4111 KiB  
Review
Magnetic Ionogel and Its Applications
by Sayan Ganguly and Shlomo Margel
Gels 2025, 11(4), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11040219 - 21 Mar 2025
Viewed by 1322
Abstract
Magnetic ionogels, a category of hybrid materials consisting of magnetic nanoparticles and ionic liquids, have garnered significant interest owing to their remarkable attributes, including tunability, flexibility, and reactivity to external magnetic fields. These materials provide a distinctive amalgamation of the benefits of both [...] Read more.
Magnetic ionogels, a category of hybrid materials consisting of magnetic nanoparticles and ionic liquids, have garnered significant interest owing to their remarkable attributes, including tunability, flexibility, and reactivity to external magnetic fields. These materials provide a distinctive amalgamation of the benefits of both magnetic nanoparticles and ionogels, resulting in improved efficacy across many applications. Magnetic ionogels may be readily controlled using magnetic fields, rendering them suitable for drug administration, biosensing, soft robotics, and actuators. The capacity to incorporate these materials into dynamic systems presents novel opportunities for the development of responsive, intelligent materials capable of real-time environmental adaptation. Nonetheless, despite the promising potential of magnetic ionogels, problems persist, including the optimization of the magnetic particle dispersion, the enhancement of the ionogel mechanical strength, and the improvement of the long-term stability. This review presents a comprehensive examination of the syntheses, characteristics, and uses of magnetic ionogels, emphasizing significant breakthroughs and persistent problems within the domain. We examine recent advancements and prospective research trajectories aimed at enhancing the design and efficacy of magnetic ionogels for practical applications across diverse fields, including biomedical uses, sensors, and next-generation actuators. This review seeks to elucidate the present status of magnetic ionogels and their prospective influence on materials science and engineering. Full article
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31 pages, 5738 KiB  
Review
Research Progress in Electroactive Polymers for Soft Robotics and Artificial Muscle Applications
by Yogesh Dewang, Vipin Sharma, Vijay Kumar Baliyan, Thiagarajan Soundappan and Yogesh Kumar Singla
Polymers 2025, 17(6), 746; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17060746 - 12 Mar 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4744
Abstract
Soft robots, constructed from deformable materials, offer significant advantages over rigid robots by mimicking biological tissues and providing enhanced adaptability, safety, and functionality across various applications. Central to these robots are electroactive polymer (EAP) actuators, which allow large deformations in response to external [...] Read more.
Soft robots, constructed from deformable materials, offer significant advantages over rigid robots by mimicking biological tissues and providing enhanced adaptability, safety, and functionality across various applications. Central to these robots are electroactive polymer (EAP) actuators, which allow large deformations in response to external stimuli. This review examines various EAP actuators, including dielectric elastomers, liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs), and ionic polymers, focusing on their potential as artificial muscles. EAPs, particularly ionic and electronic varieties, are noted for their high actuation strain, flexibility, lightweight nature, and energy efficiency, making them ideal for applications in mechatronics, robotics, and biomedical engineering. This review also highlights piezoelectric polymers like polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), known for their flexibility, biocompatibility, and ease of fabrication, contributing to tactile and pressure sensing in robotic systems. Additionally, conducting polymers, with their fast actuation speeds and high strain capabilities, are explored, alongside magnetic polymer composites (MPCs) with applications in biomedicine and electronics. The integration of machine learning (ML) and the Internet of Things (IoT) is transforming soft robotics, enhancing actuation, control, and design. Finally, the paper discusses future directions in soft robotics, focusing on self-healing composites, bio-inspired designs, sustainability, and the continued integration of IoT and ML for intelligent, adaptive, and responsive robotic systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Smart and Functional Polymers)
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16 pages, 4776 KiB  
Article
Integrated Analytical Modeling and Numerical Simulation Framework for Design Optimization of Electromagnetic Soft Actuators
by Hussein Zolfaghari, Nafiseh Ebrahimi, Yuan Ji, Xaq Pitkow and Mohammadreza Davoodi
Actuators 2025, 14(3), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/act14030128 - 6 Mar 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 872
Abstract
The growing interest in soft robotics arises from their unique ability to perform tasks beyond the capabilities of rigid robots, with soft actuators playing a central role in this innovation. Among these, electromagnetic soft actuators (ESAs) stand out for their fast response, simple [...] Read more.
The growing interest in soft robotics arises from their unique ability to perform tasks beyond the capabilities of rigid robots, with soft actuators playing a central role in this innovation. Among these, electromagnetic soft actuators (ESAs) stand out for their fast response, simple control mechanisms, and compact design. Analytical and experimental studies indicate that smaller ESAs enhance the force per unit cross-sectional area (F/CSA) without compromising force efficiency. This work uses the magnetic vector potential (MVP) to calculate the magnetic field of an ESA, which is then used to derive the actuator’s generated force. A mixed integer non-linear programming (MINLP) optimization framework is introduced to maximize the ESA’s F/CSA. Unlike prior methods that independently optimized parameters, such as ESA length and permanent magnet diameter, this study jointly optimizes these parameters to achieve a more efficient and effective design. To validate the proposed framework, finite element-based COMSOL 5.4 is used to simulate the magnetic field and generated force, ensuring consistency between MVP-based calculations and the physical model. Additionally, simulation results demonstrate the effectiveness of MINLP optimization in identifying the optimal design parameters for maximizing the F/CSA of the ESA. The data and code are available at GitHub Repository. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Theory to Practice: Incremental Nonlinear Control)
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12 pages, 2211 KiB  
Communication
4D-Printed Magnetic Responsive Bilayer Hydrogel
by Yangyang Li, Yuanyi Li, Jiawei Cao, Peng Luo, Jianpeng Liu, Lina Ma, Guo-Lin Gao and Zaixing Jiang
Nanomaterials 2025, 15(2), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15020134 - 17 Jan 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1478
Abstract
Despite its widespread application in targeted drug delivery, soft robotics, and smart screens, magnetic hydrogel still faces challenges from lagging mechanical performance to sluggish response times. In this paper, a methodology of in situ generation of magnetic hydrogel based on 3D printing of [...] Read more.
Despite its widespread application in targeted drug delivery, soft robotics, and smart screens, magnetic hydrogel still faces challenges from lagging mechanical performance to sluggish response times. In this paper, a methodology of in situ generation of magnetic hydrogel based on 3D printing of poly-N-isopropylacrylamide (PNIPAM) is presented. A temperature-responsive PNIPAM hydrogel was prepared by 3D printing, and Fe2O3 magnetic particles were generated in situ within the PNIPAM network to generate the magnetic hydrogel. By forming uniformly distributed magnetic particles in situ within the polymer network, 3D printing of customized magnetic hydrogel materials was successfully achieved. The bilayer hydrogel structure was designed according to the different swelling ratios of temperature-sensitive hydrogel and magnetic hydrogel. Combined with the excellent mechanical properties of PNIPAM and printable magnetic hydrogel, 4D-printed remote magnetic field triggered shape morphing of bilayers of five-petal flower-shaped hydrogels was presented, and the deformation process was finished within 300 s. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Magnetization and Magnetic Disorder at the Nanoscale)
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19 pages, 5783 KiB  
Article
Three-Dimensional Printable Magnetic Hydrogels with Adjustable Stiffness and Adhesion for Magnetic Actuation and Magnetic Hyperthermia Applications
by Xueting Xuan, Yi Li, Xing Xu, Zhouyi Pan, Yu Li, Yonghao Luo and Li Sun
Gels 2025, 11(1), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11010067 - 15 Jan 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1598
Abstract
Stimuli-responsive hydrogels hold immense promise for biomedical applications, but conventional gelation processes often struggle to achieve the precision and complexity required for advanced functionalities such as soft robotics, targeted drug delivery, and tissue engineering. This study introduces a class of 3D-printable magnetic hydrogels [...] Read more.
Stimuli-responsive hydrogels hold immense promise for biomedical applications, but conventional gelation processes often struggle to achieve the precision and complexity required for advanced functionalities such as soft robotics, targeted drug delivery, and tissue engineering. This study introduces a class of 3D-printable magnetic hydrogels with tunable stiffness, adhesion, and magnetic responsiveness, prepared through a simple and efficient “one-pot” method. This approach enables precise control over the hydrogel’s mechanical properties, with an elastic modulus ranging from 43 kPa to 277 kPa, tensile strength from 93 kPa to 421 kPa, and toughness from 243 kJ/m3 to 1400 kJ/m3, achieved by modulating the concentrations of acrylamide (AM) and Fe3O4 nanoparticles. These hydrogels exhibit rapid heating under an alternating magnetic field, reaching 44.4 °C within 600 s at 15 wt%, demonstrating the potential for use in mild magnetic hyperthermia. Furthermore, the integration of Fe3O4 nanoparticles and nanoclay into the AM precursor optimizes the rheological properties and ensures high printability, enabling the fabrication of complex, high-fidelity structures through extrusion-based 3D printing. Compared to existing magnetic hydrogels, our 3D-printable platform uniquely combines adjustable mechanical properties, strong adhesion, and multifunctionality, offering enhanced capabilities for use in magnetic actuation and hyperthermia in biomedical applications. This advancement marks a significant step toward the scalable production of next-generation intelligent hydrogels for precision medicine and bioengineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogel-Based Scaffolds with a Focus on Medical Use (2nd Edition))
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27 pages, 7982 KiB  
Article
Contact Dynamic Behaviors of Magnetic Hydrogel Soft Robots
by Yunian Shen and Yiming Zou
Gels 2025, 11(1), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11010020 - 31 Dec 2024
Viewed by 974
Abstract
Magnetic hydrogel soft robots have shown great potential in various fields. However, their contact dynamic behaviors are complex, considering stick–slip motion at the contact interface, and lack accurate computational models to analyze them. This paper improves the numerical computational method for hydrogel materials [...] Read more.
Magnetic hydrogel soft robots have shown great potential in various fields. However, their contact dynamic behaviors are complex, considering stick–slip motion at the contact interface, and lack accurate computational models to analyze them. This paper improves the numerical computational method for hydrogel materials with magneto-mechanical coupling effect, analyses the inchworm-like contact motion of the biomimetic bipedal magnetic hydrogel soft robot, and designs and optimizes the robot’s structure. In the constitutive model, a correction factor representing the influence of the direction of magnetic flux density on the domain density has been introduced. The magnetic part of the Helmholtz free energy has been redefined as the magnetic potential energy, which can be used to explain the phenomenon that the material will still deform when the magnetic flux density is parallel to the external magnetic field. The accuracy of the simulation is verified by comparing numerical solutions with experimental results for a magnetic hydrogel cantilever beam. Furthermore, employing the present methods, the locomotion of a magnetic hydrogel soft robot modeled after the inchworm’s gait is simulated, and the influence of the coefficient of friction on its movement is discussed. The numerical results clearly display the control effect of the external magnetic field on the robot’s motion. Full article
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35 pages, 2583 KiB  
Review
A Review of Soft Robotic Actuators and Their Applications in Bioengineering, with an Emphasis on HASEL Actuators’ Future Potential
by Osura Perera, Ranjith Liyanapathirana, Gaetano Gargiulo and Upul Gunawardana
Actuators 2024, 13(12), 524; https://doi.org/10.3390/act13120524 - 18 Dec 2024
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 6157
Abstract
This review will examine the rapidly growing field of soft robotics, with a special emphasis on soft robotic actuators and their applications in bioengineering. Bioengineering has increasingly utilized soft robotics due to their mechanical adaptability and flexibility, with applications including drug delivery, assistive [...] Read more.
This review will examine the rapidly growing field of soft robotics, with a special emphasis on soft robotic actuators and their applications in bioengineering. Bioengineering has increasingly utilized soft robotics due to their mechanical adaptability and flexibility, with applications including drug delivery, assistive and wearable devices, artificial organs, and prosthetics. Soft robotic applications, as well as the responsive mechanisms employed in soft robotics, include electrical, magnetic, thermal, photo-responsive, and pressure-driven actuators. Special attention is given to hydraulically amplified self-healing electrostatic (HASEL) actuators due to their biomimetic properties and innovative combination of dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs) and hydraulic actuators, which eliminates the limitations of each actuator while introducing capabilities such as self-healing. HASEL actuators combine the fast response and self-sensing features of DEAs, as well as the force generation and adaptability of hydraulic systems. Their self-healing ability from electrical damage not only makes HASELs a unique technology among others but also makes them promising for long-term bioengineering applications. A key contribution of this study is the comparative analysis of the soft actuators, presented in detailed tables. The performance of soft actuators is assessed against a common set of critical parameters, including specific power, strain, maximum actuation stress, energy efficiency, cycle life, and self-healing capabilities. This study has also identified some important research gaps and potential areas where soft robotics may still be developed in the future. Future research should focus on improvements in power supply design, long-term material durability, and enhanced energy efficiency. This review will serve as an intermediate reference for researchers and system designers, guiding the next generation of advancements in soft robotics within bioengineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soft Robotics in Biomedical Application)
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15 pages, 12494 KiB  
Article
Development of High-Aspect-Ratio Soft Magnetic Microarrays for Magneto-Mechanical Actuation via Field-Induced Injection Molding
by Da Seul Shin, Jin Wook Park, Chang Woo Gal, Jina Kim, Woo Seok Yang, Seon Yeong Yang, Min Jik Kim, Ho Jae Kwak, Sang Min Park and Jong Hyun Kim
Polymers 2024, 16(21), 3003; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16213003 - 25 Oct 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1325
Abstract
Magnetorheological elastomers (MREs) are in demand in the field of high-tech microindustries and nanoindustries such as biomedical applications and soft robotics due to their exquisite magneto-sensitive response. Among various MRE applications, programmable actuators are emerging as promising soft robots because of their combined [...] Read more.
Magnetorheological elastomers (MREs) are in demand in the field of high-tech microindustries and nanoindustries such as biomedical applications and soft robotics due to their exquisite magneto-sensitive response. Among various MRE applications, programmable actuators are emerging as promising soft robots because of their combined advantages of excellent flexibility and precise controllability in a magnetic system. Here, we present the development of magnetically programmable soft magnetic microarray actuators through field-induced injection molding using MREs, which consist of styrene-ethylene/butylene styrene (SEBS) elastomer and carbonyl iron powder (CIP). The ratio of the CIP/SEBS matrix was designed to maximize the CIP fraction based on a critical solids loading. Further, as part of the design of the magnetization distribution in micropillar arrays, the magnetorheological response of the molten composites was analyzed using the static and dynamic viscosity results for both the on and off magnetic states, which reflected the particle dipole interaction and subsequent particle alignment during the field-induced injection molding process. To develop a high-aspect-ratio soft magnetic microarray, X-ray lithography was applied to prepare the sacrificial molds with a height-to-width ratio of 10. The alignment of the CIP was designed to achieve a parallel magnetic direction along the micropillar columns, and consequently, the micropillar arrays successfully achieved the uniform and large bending actuation of up to approximately 81° with an applied magnetic field. This study suggests that the injection molding process offers a promising manufacturing approach to build a programmable soft magnetic microarray actuator. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Application of Polymer Scaffolds, 2nd Volume)
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