Search Results (109)

The recycling of lithium-ion batteries is picking up rather slowly, although recent rapid growth in consumption and increasing prevalence of battery electric vehicles have increased the quantity of recoverable material from past years of production. Yet, the diversity of different product types i.e., chemistries and product life spans complicates the recovery of raw materials. At present, large-scale industrial recycling of lithium-ion batteries employs (1) pyrometallurgy, with downstream hydrometallurgy for recovery of refined metals/salts; and (2) hydrometallurgy, requiring upstream mechanical shredding of cells and/or modules. Regulatory requirements, especially in Europe, and the high industry concentration along the lithium-ion battery value chain drive recycling efforts forward. The present study aims to quantify the potential contribution of 2nd lithium from recycling to battery production on a global and European scale up to 2050. The overall recycling output of lithium in any given year depends on the interactions between several different factors, including past production, battery lifetime distributions, and recovery rates, all of which are uncertain. The simplest way to propagate input uncertainties to the final results is to use Monte Carlo-type simulations. Calculations were done separately for EVs and portable batteries. The overall supply of lithium from recycling is the sum of the contributions from EVs and portable electronics from both the EU and the RoW in each battery production scenario. Results show a total global supply of recycled lithium below 20% in each scenario until 2050. On the EU level, the contribution of recycled lithium may reach up to 50% due to the high collection and recovery rate targets. Full article

Sn-based anodes for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) offer high capacity and low cost; however, significant volume changes during lithiation/delithiation cause mechanical degradation, limiting their practical applications. Microstructural control is a key approach to mitigating these volume changes. This study reports the fabrication of core (Sn rod)-shell (mesoporous Sn-oxide layer) structures through electrodeposition followed by anodization, and their applications to anode active materials for LIBs. First, micro-Sn rods with controlled lengths and diameters were fabricated under various electrodeposition conditions. The electrodeposited Sn exhibited a dendritic structure with short secondary rods branching from a long primary rod. While the primary Sn rod diameters remained constant, the secondary rod diameters varied depending on electrodeposition parameters. Notably, rod coarsening due to secondary rod agglomeration occurred at higher currents and longer deposition durations during galvanostatic electrodeposition. In contrast, potentiostatic electrodeposition prevented agglomeration and increased the quantity of Sn rods with voltage. Subsequently, the core-shell structures were fabricated by anodizing Sn rods, forming mesoporous Sn-oxide layers with different pore sizes and pore wall thicknesses. Electrochemical characterization revealed that the core-shell anode performance for LIBs varied with the Sn-oxide shell’s microstructure. These findings provide insights into optimal core-shell structures to improve anode performance for LIBs. Full article

Lithium-ion batteries are extensively utilized in modern applications due to their high energy density, long cycle life, and efficiency. With the increasing demand for sustainable energy storage solutions, accurately estimating the State of Health (SOH) is essential to address challenges related to battery degradation and secondary life management. Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) is a widely used diagnostic tool for evaluating battery performance due to its simplicity and cost-effectiveness. However, EIS often struggles to decouple overlapping electrochemical processes. The Distribution of Relaxation Times (DRT) method has emerged as a powerful alternative, enabling the isolation of key processes, such as ohmic resistance, SEI resistance, charge transfer resistance, and diffusion, thereby providing deeper insights into battery aging mechanisms. This paper presents a novel approach for estimating the State of Health (SOH) of batteries by leveraging DRT parameters across multiple State of Charge (SOC) levels. This study incorporates data from three lithium-ion batteries, each with distinct initial capacities, introducing variability that reflects the natural differences observed in real-world battery performance. By employing a Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM)-based machine learning model, the proposed framework demonstrates a superior accuracy in SOH prediction compared to traditional EIS-based methods. The results highlight the sensitivity of DRT parameters to SOH degradation and validate their effectiveness as reliable indicators for battery health. This research underscores the potential of combining a DRT analysis with AI-driven models to advance scalable, precise, and interpretable battery diagnostics. Full article

It is well known that the safety concerns surrounding lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), such as fire and explosion, are currently a bottleneck problem for the large-scale usage of energy storage power stations. The study of water-based fire-extinguishing agents used for LIBs is a promising direction. How to choose a suitable water-based fire-extinguishing agent is a significant scientific problem. In this study, a comprehensive evaluation model, including four primary indexes and eleven secondary indexes was established, which was used in the scenario of an electrochemical energy storage power station. The model is only suitable for assessing water-based fire extinguishing for suppressing lithium iron phosphate battery fire. Based on the comprehensive evaluation index system and extinguishing experiment data, the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) combined with fuzzy TOPSIS was used to evaluate the performances of the three kinds of water-based fire-extinguishing agents. According to the results of the fuzzy binary contrast method, the three kinds of fire-extinguishing agents could be ranked as follows: YS1000 > F-500 additive > pure water. The study provided a method for choosing and preparing a suitable fire-extinguishing agent for lithium iron phosphate batteries. Full article

This study investigates graphite separation from Lithium-Ion Battery (LIB) black mass (which is a mixture of anode and cathode materials) via froth flotation coupled with an open-loop recycling approach for the graphite (froth) product. Black mass samples originating from different LIB types were used to produce a carbon-poor and a carbon-enriched fractions. The optimization of the flotation parameters was carried out depending on the black mass chemistry, i.e., the number of flotation stages and the dosing of flotation agents. The carbon-enriched product (with a carbon content of 92 wt.%, corresponding to a recovery of 89%) was subsequently used as a secondary carbon source for refractory material (magnesia carbon brick). Analyses of brick chemistry, as well as thermo-mechanic properties in terms of density, porosity, cold crushing strength (CCS), hot modulus of rupture (HMOR—the maximum bending stress that can be applied to a material before it breaks), and thermal conductivity showed no negative influence on brick quality. It could be demonstrated that flotation graphite can principally be used as a secondary source for non-battery applications. This is a highly valuable example that contributes to a more complete closure of a battery’s life cycle in terms of circular economy. Full article

With the popularity of new-energy vehicles, the recovery and reuse of lithium-ion battery (LIB) resources have become topics of great concern. This study explores the risks of the lithium resource chain in terms of supply–demand balance and lithium resource criticality. We propose a prediction algorithm for lithium production based on reverse-order MT-EGM-SD (metabolism–even grey model–system dynamics), upon which a system dynamics model for lithium resource recycling and reuse is constructed. We use dynamic simulation to evaluate the benefits of lithium resource recovery and the effects of different LIB recovery strategies. The results show that LIB recycling strategies, such as enhancing subsidy levels and strengthening public awareness initiatives, can significantly increase lithium resource recovery rates. From a medium- and long-term perspective, however, the technological progress strategy can greatly reduce lithium consumption intensity in the battery. Cascade use policy has significant economic benefits, but it delays the recycling of secondary raw materials. Under the joint strategy with the best resource efficiency (stringent government recycling regulations and significant advancements in battery production technology), the lithium supply–demand balance and the lithium resource recovery rate increase by 301.89% and 795.65%, respectively. Meanwhile, lithium resource chain risk, lithium criticality, and actual lithium demand decrease by 18.77%, 18.86%, and 75.11%, respectively. Full article

This study applies a dynamic material flow analysis to track lead flows, in-use stocks, secondary reserves, and recycling trends across eleven major economies from 1950 to 2018. The results show the global lead cycle has shifted from a variety of industrial applications to a predominant reliance on lead–acid batteries. By 2018, China had become the dominant actor, accounting for 82% of global lead extraction and holding 47% of total in-use stocks (58.3 Mt). Despite regulatory efforts to phase out dissipative uses, the global domestic processed output in 2018 reached 1429 kt, surpassing 1976 levels (1148 kt). At the same time, end-of-life lead waste increased to 7717 kt, yet only 48% was successfully recovered, exposing inefficiencies in current recycling and circular economy initiatives. Secondary reserves also varied widely, with China (18.5 Mt) and the US (9.9 Mt) leading in absolute terms, while Europe maintained the highest per capita reserves. The growing competition from lithium-ion batteries raises questions about the long-term role of lead in industry. If demand declines, the accumulation of unmanaged legacy stocks could become a significant environmental challenge. To address these issues, improvements in recycling systems, stricter waste management policies, and the development of sustainable alternatives are needed. Full article

The increasing demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) and the critical need for lithium make the efficient recycling of secondary resources essential. Synthetic Li-bearing phases, some with lithium contents greater than natural sources (e.g., spodumene), can occur in slags produced by the pyrometallurgical recycling of end-of-life LIBs. This study investigates both the composition of synthetic model slags reproducing LIB recycling and the recovery potential of Li-bearing phases using SEM-based automated mineralogy and batch flotation tests, respectively. In particular, the efficacy of a novel zwitterionic collector, punicine, in contrast to the conventional collector, oleic acid, was evaluated with a focus on recovering Li-aluminate as a key engineered artificial mineral (EnAM). The flotation tests demonstrated that punicine provided a higher degree of selectivity for Li-aluminate over gehlenite, along with improved recovery of fine and well-liberated particles. The enhanced performance is attributed to punicine’s unique frothing properties and phase-specific interactions. Our findings highlight punicine’s significant potential as a collector for lithium-bearing EnAMs to advance lithium recovery from complex slag materials. The applied unique methodology supports the study of reagent regimes in relation to the flotation behavior of EnAM phases and the sustainable recycling of LIBs. Full article

Accurate estimation of the capacity of lithium-ion batteries is crucial for battery management and secondary utilization, which can ensure the healthy and efficient operation of the battery system. In this paper, we propose multiple machine learning algorithms to estimate the capacity using the incremental capacity (IC) curve features, including the adaptive moment estimation (Adam) model, root mean square propagation (RMSprop) model, and support vector regression (SVR) model. The Kalman filter algorithm is first used to construct the IC curve, and the peak and corresponding voltages correlated with battery life were analyzed and extracted as capacity estimation features. The three models were then used to learn the relationship between aging features and capacity. Finally, the lithium-ion battery cycle aging data were used to validate the capacity estimation performance of the three proposed machine learning models. The results show that the Adam model performs better than the other two models, balancing efficiency and accuracy in the capacity estimation of lithium-ion batteries throughout the entire lifecycle. Full article

With the increasing number of batteries integrated into the grid, the electrification of transportation, and the importance of reusing secondary batteries to preserve natural resources, active balancing techniques are becoming critical for optimizing battery performance, ensuring safety, and extending their lifespan. There is a demand for battery management solutions that can efficiently manage the balancing of battery cells across a wide range of voltage levels. This paper proposes a new inductor-based active balancing topology that achieves balancing by transferring energy from battery cells to the battery pack. One of its main advantages over existing designs is that it can operate over a wide battery cell voltage range. Moreover, multicell balancing with a balancing current independent of the imbalance level can be achieved by adjusting the width and interval of pulses. The proposed topology can be implemented using traditional low-side gate driving integrated circuits, avoiding the need for expensive isolated power modules and high-side gate drivers. Sample balancer designs for low-voltage battery cells as well as higher-voltage cells are provided. The presented experimental results verify the operation of the proposed balancer on a lithium-ion battery pack. Full article

With the growing market of secondary batteries for electric vehicles (EVs) and grid-scale energy storage systems (ESS), driven by environmental challenges, the commercialization of sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) has emerged to address the high price of lithium resources used in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, achieving competitive energy densities of SIBs to LIBs remains challenging due to the absence of high-capacity anodes in SIBs such as the group-14 elements, Si or Ge, which are highly abundant in LIBs. This review presents potential candidates in metal pnictogenides as promising anode materials for SIBs to overcome the energy density bottleneck. The sodium-ion storage mechanisms and electrochemical performance across various compositions and intrinsic physical and chemical properties of pnictogenide have been summarized. By correlating these properties, strategic frameworks for designing advanced anode materials for next-generation SIBs were suggested. The trade-off relation in pnictogenides between the high specific capacities and the failure mechanism due to large volume expansion has been considered in this paper to address the current issues. This review covers several emerging strategies focused on improving both high reversible capacity and cycle stability. Full article

The growing demand for lithium, driven by its crucial role in energy storage technologies such as lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles, renewable energy storage, and portable electronics, is intensifying the need for sustainable extraction methods. While lithium is sourced from both primary and secondary resources, particularly from recycled materials, the recovery from spent lithium-ion batteries remains challenging. This article presents acidic reductive leaching as a promising alternative for lithium extraction from secondary sources and unconventional ores, emphasizing its potential benefits, such as higher recovery rates, faster processing, and adaptability to various waste materials. Notably, this method facilitates the selective recovery of lithium before cobalt and nickel, providing a strategic advantage. This study highlights the lack of optimization studies on leaching conditions (e.g., acid concentration, reducing agents, temperature, and time) that could maximize lithium recovery while minimizing environmental and economic costs. The article aims to investigate and optimize the parameters of acidic reductive leaching for more efficient lithium recovery. Additionally, the results contribute to the principles of the circular economy and sustainable supply chains in the energy sector, providing a method to reduce dependency on geopolitically constrained lithium resources and supporting the global energy transition toward cleaner energy solutions. Full article

LiCoO₂ (LCO) is a crucial active material for positive electrodes of commercial lithium-ion batteries. It is typically present in the form of micrometer-sized LCO particles, which are surrounded by binders and conductive agents with a thickness of tens of microns. In order to determine the intrinsic Li transport parameters of pure crystalline LCO, it is necessary to measure the Li diffusivity at room temperature in sintered LCO pellets free of additives. The LCO sintered bulk material consists of interconnected, about 3 µm clusters, composed of grains of about 70 nanometers in size. The Li chemical and tracer diffusivities are determined using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and potentiostatic intermittent titration technique (PITT), while the latter ones are in the range between 10⁻⁹ and 10⁻²⁸ m²s⁻¹, depending on the application of different relevant formulas and characteristic parameters. Consequently, it is essential to apply a classical non-electrochemical and Li selective method of tracer diffusion determination like ⁶Li depth profiling and secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) for comparison. Li tracer diffusivities of about 10⁻²² m²s⁻¹ at room temperature are obtained by the extrapolation of the SIMS results from higher temperatures. This significantly narrows the range of reliable electrochemically determined Li tracer diffusivities to a more limited range, between 10⁻²¹ and 10⁻²² m²s⁻¹. Full article

With the increasing demand for renewable energy and sustainable technologies, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have become crucial energy storage components. Despite the promising properties of the high capacity and stability of TiO₂, its large-scale application as an anode for LIBs is hindered by challenges like poor conductivity and volumetric changes during cycling. Here, a rutile TiO₂ composite material with a thinned carbon coating (TiO₂@TC) was synthesized through chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and a subsequent annealing process, which significantly improved the reversibility, cycling stability, and rate performance of the TiO₂ anode materials. The thickness of the carbon layer on TiO₂ was precisely controlled and thinned from 4.2 nm to 1.9 nm after secondary annealing treatment, leading to a smaller steric hindrance and an improved conductivity while serving as protective coatings by preventing the electrochemical degradation of the TiO₂ surface and hindering volumetric changes during cycling. The resulting TiO₂@TC with the thin carbon layer demonstrated a high specific capacity of 167 mAh g⁻¹ at 0.5 C in Li-based half cells, which could stably run for 200 cycles with nearly 100% capacity retention. The thin carbon layer also contributes to an improved rate performance of 90 mAh g⁻¹ at even 20 C. This work provides an innovational strategy for improving the conductivity and volumetric changes during the cycling of TiO₂ anodes. Full article

The development of hydrometallurgical recycling processes for lithium-ion batteries is challenged by the heterogeneity of the electrode powders recovered from end-of-life batteries via physical methods. These electrode materials, known as black mass, vary in composition, containing differing amounts of nickel, manganese, and cobalt (NMC), as well as other chemicals, such as lithium iron phosphate (LFP). This study presents the results of the hydrometallurgical treatment of mixed NMC and LFP black masses aimed at creating flexible recycling processes. This approach leverages the reducing power of LFP to optimize the leach liquor composition for re-synthesizing NMC precursors. In particular, the leaching conditions were optimized based on the LFP content in the solid feed to maximize the extraction of key metals (Ni, Mn, Co, and Li). The leaching solid residue, graphite, was treated and characterized as a secondary raw material for new anode preparation. Iron phosphate was recovered by increasing the pH of the leach liquor, and the NMC precursors were obtained via coprecipitation. This process achieved a recycling rate of 51%, based on the black mass input and the mass of recovered elements in the output products. Additionally, substituting LFP scraps as the reducing agent in place of H₂O₂ reduced the recycling process’s environmental impact by avoiding 1.7 tons of CO₂-equivalent emissions per ton of NMC black mass. Full article