Search Results (70)

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are vital for modern energy storage applications. Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) is a promising cathode material due to its safety, low cost, and environmental friendliness compared to the widely used nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC), which contains hazardous nickel and cobalt compounds. However, challenges remain in enhancing the performance of LFP cathodes due to their low electronic and ionic conductivity. To improve both the safety and sustainability of the battery, this work presents a water-based LFP cathode utilizing the bio-based binder carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), eliminating the need for polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and the toxic solvent N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP). This study investigates the impact of different dispersing methods—dissolver mixing and wet jet milling—on slurry properties, electrode morphology, and battery performance. Slurries were characterized by rheology, particle size distribution, and sedimentation behavior, while coated and calendered electrodes were examined via thickness measurements and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Electrochemical performance of the electrodes was evaluated by means of C-Rate testing. The results reveal that dispersing methods significantly influence slurry characteristics but marginally affect electrochemical performance. Compared to dissolver mixing, wet jet milling reduced the median particle size by 39% (ΔD50 = 3.1 µm) and lowered viscosity by 96% at 1 s⁻¹, 80% at 105 s⁻¹, and 64% at 1000 s⁻¹. In contrast, the electrochemical performance of the resulting electrodes differed only slightly, with discharge capacity varying by approximately 12.8% at 1.0 C (Δcapacity = 10.7 mAh g⁻¹). This research highlights the importance of optimizing not only material selection but also processing techniques to advance safer and more sustainable energy storage solutions. Full article

Over the next 5–10 years, the feedstock to lithium-ion battery recycling facilities will shift from Co- and Ni-rich chemistries to lower-value battery chemistries, such as lithium iron phosphate (LFP). Traditional recycling processes use toxic and corrosive inorganic acids for leaching, generating toxic waste streams. The low-value feedstocks will be LFP-rich with contamination from lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) and lithium–nickel–manganese–cobalt oxide (NMC) battery chemistries. Overall, the lower-value feedstock coupled with the need to reduce environmentally damaging waste streams requires the development of robust, green leaching processes capable of selectively targeting the LFP and LCO/NMC battery chemistries. This research concluded that a first-stage oxalic acid leach could selectively extract Al, Li, and P from the industrially sourced LFP-rich black mass. When operating at the optimal conditions (0.5 M oxalic acid, 5% solids, pH 0.8, and an agitation speed of 600 rpm), >99% of the Li and P and >97% of the Al were selectively extracted after 2 h, while Mn, Fe, Cu, Ni, and Co extractions were kept relatively low, namely, at 19%, <3%, <1%, 0%, and 0%. This research also explored a second-stage leach to treat the first-stage leach residue using ascorbic acid, citric acid, and glycine. It was concluded that when leaching with glycine (30 g/L glycine, a temperature of 40 °C, an agitation speed of 600 rpm, and 2% solids at pH 9.6), that >97% of the Co, >77% of the Ni, and 41% of the Mn were extracted, while the co-extraction percentages of Cu, Fe, and Al were <27%, <4%, and <2%. Full article

During the homogenization process of lithium battery slurry, the slurry shearing process causes the surface of the homogenization equipment to wear and generate metal containing debris, which poses a risk of inducing battery self-discharge and even explosion. Therefore, inhibiting wear of homogenizing equipment is imperative, and systematic investigation into the wear behavior and underlying mechanisms of SUS304 stainless steel during homogenization is urgently required. In this study, lithium iron phosphate (LFP) and lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NCM) cathode slurries were used as research objects. Changes in surface parameters, microstructure, and elemental composition of the wear region on SUS304 stainless steel under different working conditions were characterized. The results indicate that in the SUS304-lithium-ion battery slurry system, the potential wear mechanism of SUS304 gradually evolves with changes in load and rotational speed, following the order: adhesive wear (low speed, low load) → abrasive wear (medium speed, high load) → fatigue wear (high speed). Under high-load and high-rotational-speed conditions, oxidative corrosion wear on the ball–disc contact surface is particularly pronounced. Additionally, wear of SUS304 is more severe in the LFP slurry system compared to the NCM system. Macroscopic experiments also revealed that the speed effect is a core factor influencing the wear of SUS304, and the increase in its wear rate is more than twice that caused by the load effect. This study helps to clarify the wear behavior and wear mechanism evolution of homogenization equipment during the lithium battery homogenization process, providing data support and optimization direction for subsequent material screening and surface strengthening treatment of homogenization equipment components. Full article

Ternary lithium-ion and lithium iron phosphate power batteries are widely used on electric vehicles in China. However, the development of their carbon footprint assessment systems is still in its initial stage. This paper calculates the carbon footprints of commonly used ternary lithium-ion and lithium iron phosphate power batteries and analyzes their ecological impacts on the environment. Life cycle of the power batteries are divided into production and usage, and the inventory data of the battery in two stages are collected according to 1 kWh unit. The software Simapro and the IPCC 2021 GWP 100 carbon footprint calculation method are used to calculate the carbon footprint. The results show that the carbon footprint contribution of ternary lithium-ion batteries is the largest in the production stage, accounting for 75.8% of the total carbon footprint. This is because three precious metals (cobalt, nickel and manganese) account for a large proportion of the carbon footprint. For lithium iron phosphate batteries, the carbon footprint contribution is the largest in the usage stage, accounting for 59% of the total carbon footprint, mainly due to the low proportion of green power in China’s power system. A comparison of the total carbon emissions of two types of batteries shows that the total emissions of lithium iron phosphate batteries are generally half of those of ternary lithium-ion batteries, indicating that lithium iron phosphate batteries are superior to ternary lithium-ion batteries in terms of ecological impact on the environmental. Full article

Exposure of LIB materials to ambient conditions with some level of humidity, either accidentally owing to imperfect fabrication or cell damage, or deliberately due to battery opening operations for analytical or recycling purposes, is a rather common event. As far as humidity-induced damage is concerned, on the one hand the general chemistry is well known, but on the other hand, concrete structural details of these processes have received limited explicit attention. The present study contributes to this field with an investigation centered on the use of Raman spectroscopy for the assessment of structural modifications using common lithium iron phosphate (LFP) and nickel–cobalt–manganese/lithium–manganese oxide (NCM-LMO) cathodes. The impact of humidity has been followed through the observation of differences in Raman bands of pristine and humidity-exposed cathode materials. Vibrational spectroscopy has been complemented with morphological (SEM), chemical (EDS), and electrochemical analyses. We have thus pinpointed the characteristic morphological and compositional changes corresponding to corrosion and active material dissolution. Electrochemical tests with cathodes reassembled in coin cells allowed for the association of specific capacity losses with humidity damaging. Full article

In this study, a selection of active materials were coated onto commercially available intermediate modulus carbon fibers to form and analyze the performance of novel composite cathodes for structural power composites. Various slurries containing polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), active material powders, 1-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) and carbon black (CB) were used to coat carbon fiber tows by immersion. Four active materials—lithium cobalt oxide (LCO), lithium iron phosphate (LFP), lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC), and lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA)—were individually tested to assess their electrochemical reversibility. The cells were prepared with a polymer separator and liquid electrolytes and assembled in 2025-coin cells. Electrochemical analysis of the cathode materials showed that at C/5 and room temperature the measured capacities ranged from 39.8 Ah kg⁻¹ to 64.7 Ah kg⁻¹ for the LFP and NCA active materials, respectively. The full cells exhibited capacities of 18.1, 23.5, 27.2, and 28.2 Ah kg⁻¹ after 55 cycles for LFP, LCO, NCA, and NMC811, respectively. Finally, visual and elemental analysis were performed via scanning electron microscope (SEM) and energy-dispersive x-ray (EDX) confirming desirable surface coverage and successful transfer of the active materials onto the carbon fiber tows. Full article

There is an increasing demand for the development of efficient and sustainable battery recycling processes. Currently, many recycling processes rely on toxic inorganic acids to recover materials from high-value battery chemistries such as lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides (NMCs) and lithium cobalt oxide (LCOs). However, as cell manufacturers seek more cost-effective battery chemistries, the value of the spent battery value chain is increasingly diluted by chemistries such as lithium iron phosphate (LFPs). These cheaper alternatives present a difficulty when recycling, as current recycling processes are geared towards dealing with high-value chemistries; thus, the current processes become less economical. To date, much research is focused on treating a single battery chemistry; however, often, the feed material entering a battery recycling facility is contaminated with other battery chemistries, e.g., LFP feed contaminated with NMC, LCO, or LMOs. This research aims to selectively leach various battery chemistries out of a mixed feed material with the aid of a green organic acid, namely oxalic acid. When operating at the optimal conditions (2% solids, 0.25 M oxalic acid, natural pH around 1.15, 25 °C, 60 min), this research has proven that oxalic acid can be used to selectively dissolve 95.58% and 93.57% of Li and P, respectively, from a mixed LFP-NMC mixed feed, all while only extracting 12.83% of Fe and 8.43% of Mn, with no Co and Ni being detected in solution. Along with the high degree of selectivity, this research has also demonstrated, through varying the pH, that the selectivity of the leaching system can be altered. It was determined that at pH 0.5 the system dissolved both the NMC and LFP chemistries; at a pH of 1.15, the LFP chemistry (Li and P) was selectively targeted. Finally, at a pH of 4, the NMC chemistry (Ni, Co and Mn) was selectively dissolved. Full article

The inevitable decline in battery performance presents a major barrier to its widespread industrial application. Adaptive and accurate estimation of battery capacity is paramount for battery operation, maintenance, and residual value evaluation. In this paper, we propose a novel battery capacity estimation method based on an approximate open circuit voltage curve. The proposed method is rigorously tested using both lithium–iron–phosphate (LFP) and nickel–cobalt–manganese (NCM) battery packs at multiple charging rates under varied aging conditions. To further enhance capacity estimation accuracy, a voltage correction strategy is implemented utilizing the incremental capacity (IC) curve. This strategy also verifies the potential benefits of increasing the charging rate to shorten the overall test duration. Eventually, the capacity estimation error is consistently controlled within 2%. With optimal state of charge (SOC) interval selection, the estimation error can be further reduced to 1%. Clearly, our proposed method exhibits excellent compatibility across diverse battery materials and degradation states. This adaptability holds substantial scientific value and practical importance. It contributes to the safe and economic utilization of Li-ion batteries throughout their entire lifespan. Full article

This paper explores the implementation of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) in underground mining operations, focusing on their benefits, challenges, and safety considerations. The study examines the shift from traditional diesel-powered machinery to BEVs in response to increasing environmental concerns and stricter emission regulations. It discusses various lithium-ion battery chemistries used in BEVs, particularly lithium–iron–phosphate (LFP) and nickel–manganese–cobalt (NMC), comparing their performance, safety, and suitability for underground mining applications. The research highlights the significant benefits of BEVs, including reduced greenhouse gas emissions, improved air quality in confined spaces, and potential ventilation cost savings. However, it also addresses critical safety concerns, such as fire risks associated with lithium-ion batteries and the emission of toxic gases during thermal runaway events. The manuscript emphasises the importance of comprehensive risk assessment and mitigation strategies when introducing BEVs to underground mining environments. It concludes that while BEVs offer promising solutions for more sustainable and environmentally friendly mining operations, further research is needed to ensure their safe integration into underground mining practices. This study contributes valuable insights to the ongoing discussion on the future of mining technology and its environmental impact. Full article

Accurate cell selection is primordial to ensure battery safety and longevity. Unfortunately, because of path dependence, finding out which cells are best adapted to a specific application is not straightforward and might require significant testing. This work provides the analysis of three years of aging, both cycling and calendar, for two batches of commercial cells of different chemistries. Using design of experiments and analysis of variance, this work showed that the impact of temperature and depth of discharge, both at the beginning and end of discharge, are chemistry dependent. Moreover, an analysis of the cells’ degradation modes also showcased different pathways depending on the positive electrode chemistry and the type of aging. Full article

Batteries degrade over time. Such degradation leads to performance loss, but more importantly, safety issues arise. To evaluate the battery degradation, traditional diagnostic techniques rely on model-based or data-driven approaches; however, those methods often require controlled conditions or specific tests, which may not be applicable in real fields. In this regard, we propose a deep learning-based method addressing these limitations by accurately modeling batteries using real-world operational data from photovoltaic (PV)-integrated battery energy storage system (BESSs), where charging currents vary dynamically and SOC is capped at 70% by regulation. The proposed method is based on a neural surrogate model for batteries, employing a sequence-to-sequence architecture, which directly captures the dynamic behavior of batteries from operational data, eliminating the need for specialized characterization tests or feature extraction. The proposed model synthesizes the terminal voltage with a mean absolute error of 6.4 mV for lithium–iron–phosphate (LFP) cells and 49 mV for nickel–cobalt–manganese (NCM) battery modules, respectively, which is only 0.4% and 0.29% of the voltage swing. As a health indicator, we also propose the concept of voltage deviation (VD), defined as the deviation between the synthesized and actual terminal voltages. We demonstrate that VD can be evaluated not only in laboratory data but also in field data. Full article

A comprehensive roadmap for advancing Electric Micromobility (EMM) systems addressing the fragmented and scarce information available in the field is defined as a transformative solution for urban transportation, targeting short-distance trips with compact, lightweight vehicles under 350 kg and maximum speeds of 45 km/h, such as bicycles, e-scooters, and skateboards, which offer flexible, eco-friendly alternatives to traditional transportation, easing congestion and promoting sustainable urban mobility ecosystems. This review aims to guide researchers by consolidating key technical insights and offering a foundation for future exploration in this domain. It examines critical components of EMM systems, including electric motors, batteries, power converters, and control strategies. Likewise, a comparative analysis of electric motors, such as PMSM, BLDC, SRM, and IM, highlights their unique advantages for micromobility applications. Battery technologies, including Lithium Iron Phosphate, Nickel Manganese Cobalt, Nickel-Cadmium, Sodium-Sulfur, Lithium-Ion and Sodium-Ion, are evaluated with a focus on energy density, efficiency, and environmental impact. The study delves deeply into power converters, emphasizing their critical role in optimizing energy flow and improving system performance. Furthermore, control techniques like PID, fuzzy logic, sliding mode, and model predictive control (MPC) are analyzed to enhance safety, efficiency, and adaptability in diverse EMM scenarios by using cutting-edge semiconductor devices like Silicon Carbide (SiC) and Gallium Nitride (GaN) in well-known configurations, such as buck, boost, buck–boost, and bidirectional converters to ensure great efficiency, reduce energy losses, and ensure compact and reliable designs. Ultimately, this review not only addresses existing gaps in the literature but also provides a guide for researchers, outlining future research directions to foster innovation and contribute to the development of sustainable, efficient, and environmentally friendly urban transportation systems. Full article

This paper presents entropy measurements for a large set of commercial Li-ion cells. We present entropy data on full cells with a variety of common Li-ion cell electrode chemistries; graphite, hard carbon, lithium-titanium-oxide (LTO), lithium cobalt-oxide (LCO), nickel manganese cobalt oxides (NMC), nickel cobalt aluminium oxide (NCA), lithium iron-phosphate (LFP), as well as electrodes with mixes of these. All data were collected using an accelerated potentiometric method in steps of approximately 5% State-of-Charge (SoC) across the full SoC window. We observe that the entropy profiles depend on the chemistry of the Li-ion cells, but that they also vary between different commercial cells with the same chemistry. Entropy contributions are quantified with respect to both, their means, positive and negative contributions as well as their SoC variation. In addition, we present how different cyclic ageing temperatures change the entropy profiles for a selected commercial Li-ion cell through ageing. A clear difference in entropy profiles is observed after a capacity loss of 20%. This difference can be attributed to different ageing mechanisms within the Li-ion cells, leading to changes in the balancing of electrodes, as well as changes in the electrode materials. Full article

One of the major concerns for battery electric vehicles (BEVs) is the occurrence of thermal runaway (TR), usually of a single cell, and its propagation to adjacent cells in a battery pack. To guarantee sufficient safety for the vehicle occupants, the TR mechanisms must be known and predictable. In this work, we compare thermal runaway scenarios using different initiation protocols (heat–wait–seek, constant heating, nail penetration) and battery chemistries (nickel manganese cobalt oxide, NMC; lithium iron phosphate, LFP; and sodium-ion batteries, SIB) with the cells in a fully charged state. Our goal is to specifically trigger a variety of different possible TR scenarios (internal failure, external hotspot, mechanical damage) with different types of chemistries to obtain reliable data that are subsequently employed for modeling and prediction of the phenomenon. The safety of the tested cells depending on their chemistry can be summarized as LFP > SIB >> NMC. The data of the TR experiments were used as the basis for high-fidelity modeling and predicting of TR phenomena in 3D. The models simulated reaction rates, represented by the typically employed Arrhenius approach. The effects of the investigated TR triggering methods and cell chemistries were represented with sufficient accuracy, enabling the application of the models for the simulation of thermal propagation in battery packs. Full article

It is necessary to maintain safe, efficient, and compatible energy storage systems to meet the high demand for electric vehicles (EVs). Lithium manganese nickel cobalt (NMC) and lithium ferro phosphate (LFP) batteries are the most commonly used lithium batteries in EVs. It is imperative to note that batteries are classified according to their electrochemical performance. A number of factors play a crucial role in determining how efficiently batteries can be used. These factors include the cell temperature, energy density, self-discharge, current limits, aging, and performance measurements. This paper offers a proposed electrothermal model for comparison between LFP and NMC batteries. This model demonstrates the different behaviors according to their application in EVs. This is carried out through studies of state of charge (SoC), state of health (SoH), thermal runaway, self-discharge, and remaining useful life (RUL) in EVs. According to numerical analysis, this paper examines how these different types of batteries behave in EVs to assist in the selection of the most suitable battery taking into account the operating temperature and discharge current using a helpful thermoelectric model reflecting battery safety and life span effectively. Using MATLAB Simulink, the data selected in the electrothermal model are combined from a number of references that are incorporated into lookup tables that affect the change in values in the electrothermal model. The cells are implemented in an EV system using a current test to examine the measured current that goes in and comes out of the battery cells during charging and discharging processes taking into account motoring and regenerative braking for a specified drive cycle time and a number of discharging cycles. It was found that LFP batteries have better stability for open circuit voltages of 3.34 volts over a wide range of conducted temperatures. NMC batteries, on the other hand, exhibit some open circuit voltage variation of 0.053 volts over the temperature range used. Furthermore, the self-discharging current of LFP batteries was about 12 times lower than that of NMC batteries. Compared to LFP batteries, NMC batteries have a higher energy density per unit of mass of 150%, which reflects their greater discharge range. As a result of temperature effects, it has been revealed that LFP batteries are about two times more stable during discharging than NMC batteries, particularly at higher temperatures, such as 45 degrees. Full article