Search Results (72)

This essay provides a fine-grained analysis of selected passages of Giulio Aleni (艾儒略 1582–1649)’s translation of Catholic liturgy into classical Chinese in late imperial China. It focuses on the hitherto underexplored relationships between Aleni’s resort to medieval Aristotelianism and Thomism, as well as his translation-based introduction of Catholic Eucharistic theology into China. The case studies here revolve around Aleni’s Chinese translation of Aristotelian-Thomistic hylomorphism, with a focus on his interpretation of “anima” (i.e., the soul, which corresponds largely to linghun 靈魂 in Chinese), which is a multifaceted Western concept that pertains simultaneously to Aristotelian-Thomistic philosophy and Eucharistic theology. It is argued that in his overarching project of introducing Western learnings (i.e., 西學) to sixteenth- and seventeenth-century China, Aleni’s attention is centered primarily on the body-soul and form-matter relationship. This is, as understood here, motivated to a great extent by his scholarly awareness that properly informing Chinese Catholics of the Aristotelian-Thomistic underpinning of Western metaphysics enacts an indispensable role in introducing Catholic liturgy into China, notably the mystery of the Eucharist and Transubstantiation that would not have been effectively introduced to China without having the Western philosophical underpinnings already made available to Chinese intellectuals. Aleni’s use of medieval European cultural legacy thus requires more in-depth analysis vis-à-vis his translational poetics in China. Accordingly, the intellectual and liturgical knowledge in Aleni’s Chinese œuvres shall be investigated associatively, and the medievalism embodied by Aleni offers a valid entry point and productive critical prism. Full article

The design and planning of Western-style constructions during the early Qing Dynasty in China constituted a significant multicultural encounter that fused technological advancement with aesthetic innovation. This cultural interplay is particularly evident in the imperial garden and pavilion projects commissioned by the Qing court, which served as physical and symbolic sites of cross-cultural dialogue. Influenced by the intellectual and artistic movements of the European Renaissance, Western architectural concepts gradually found their way into the spatial and visual language of Chinese architecture, especially within the royal gardens and aristocratic buildings of the time. These structures were not simply imitative but rather represented a selective adaptation of Western ideas to suit Chinese imperial tastes and principles. This article examines the architectural language that emerged from this encounter between Chinese and European cultures, analysing symbolic motifs, spatial design, ornamental aesthetics, the application of linear perspective, and the integration of foreign architectural forms. These elements collectively functioned as tools to construct a unique visual discourse that communicated both political authority and cultural hybridity. The findings underscore that this architectural phenomenon was not merely stylistic imitation, but rather a dynamic convergence of technological knowledge and artistic vision across cultural boundaries. Full article

Traditional Chinese Kang heating systems have been used for over two millennia in northern China, yet their thermal efficiency and optimal design parameters lack scientific validation. This study aims to establish evidence-based guidelines for Kang-to-room area ratios to enhance thermal comfort and energy efficiency in rural architecture. We conducted direct measurements in a controlled experimental house (24 m²) in Huludao City, collecting temperature and humidity data from Kang surfaces and interior spaces over five-day periods. A benchmark curve for heat flux density was developed based on specific fuelwood consumption rates (1 kg/m²). TRNSYS simulations were employed to validate experimental data and analyze thermal performance in the historical Qingning Palace (352 m²) at Shenyang Imperial Palace. The benchmark curve demonstrated high accuracy with a Mean Absolute Error of 0.46 °C and Root Mean Square Error of 0.53 °C when compared to measured temperatures over the 48 h validation period; these values are well within acceptable ranges for calibrated thermal models. Simulations revealed optimal thermal comfort conditions when heat dissipation parameters were scaled appropriately for building size. The optimal Kang-to-room area ratio ranges from 0.28 to 0.69, with the existing Qingning Palace ratio (0.34) falling within this range, validating traditional design wisdom. This research provides a scientific foundation for sustainable architectural practices, bridging traditional knowledge with contemporary thermal engineering principles for both heritage preservation and modern rural construction applications. Full article

The Xixia Imperial Tombs (XITs) represent a crucial, yet still largely mysterious, component of the Tangut civilization’s legacy. Located in northwestern China, this extensive necropolis offers invaluable insights into the Tangut state, culture, and burial practices. This study employs an integrated approach utilizing multi-resolution and multi-temporal satellite remote sensing data, including Gaofen-2 (GF-2), Landsat-8 OLI, declassified GAMBIT imagery, and Google Earth, combined with deep learning techniques, to conduct a comprehensive archaeological investigation of the XITs’ burial landscape. We performed geomorphological analysis of the surrounding environment and automated identification and mapping of burial mounds and mausoleum features using YOLOv5, complemented by manual interpretation of very-high-resolution (VHR) satellite imagery. Spectral indices and image fusion techniques were applied to enhance the detection of archaeological features. Our findings demonstrated the efficacy of this combined methodology for archaeology prospect, providing valuable insights into the spatial layout, geomantic considerations, and preservation status of the XITs. Notably, the analysis of declassified GAMBIT imagery facilitated the identification of a suspected true location for the ninth imperial tomb (M9), a significant contribution to understanding Xixia history through remote sensing archaeology. This research provides a replicable framework for the detection and preservation of archaeological sites using readily available satellite data, underscoring the power of advanced remote sensing and machine learning in heritage studies. Full article

From the mid-Ming to early Qing dynasties, Mount Jizu 雞足山 in Yunnan achieved unexpected prominence within China’s Buddhist sacred landscape—an event of regional, national, and transnational significance. Employing an explicit comparative lens that juxtaposes Jizu with China’s core-region sacred sites like Mount Wutai and Emei, this study investigates the timing, regional dynamics, institutional mechanisms, and causal drivers behind the rapid ascent. Rejecting teleological narratives, it traces the mountain’s trajectory through four developmental phases to address critical historiographical questions: how did a peripheral Yunnan site achieve national prominence within a remarkably compressed timeframe? By what mechanisms could its sacred authority be constructed to inspire pilgrimages even across vast distances? Which historical agents and processes orchestrated these transformations, and how did the mountain’s symbolic meaning shift dynamically over time? Departing from earlier scholarship that privileges regional and secular frameworks, this work not only rebalances the emphasis on religious dimensions but also expands the analytical scope beyond regional confines to situate Mount Jizu within national and transnational frameworks. Eventually, by analyzing the structural, institutional, and agential dynamics—spanning local, imperial, and transnational dimensions—this study reveals how the mountain’s sacralization emerged from the convergence of local agency, acculturative pressures, state-building imperatives, late-Ming Buddhist revival, literati networks, and the strategic mobilization of symbolic capital. It also reveals that Mount Jizu was not a static sacred site but a dynamic arena of contestation and negotiation, where competing claims to spiritual authority and cultural identity were perpetually redefined. Full article

In late imperial China, a type of painting known as “panoramic maps” (shengjing tu 聖境圖, literally “sacred realm maps”) depicted Buddhist sacred sites. Often surviving as woodblock prints, examples from Mount Wutai and Mount Putuo are particularly representative. Previous research has often viewed these images as pilgrimage guides or focused on the relationship between pictorial perspectives and actual geography. This study centers on panoramic maps of Mount Wutai and Mount Putuo, examining both vertical and horizontal layouts, to offer a preliminary understanding of this genre. This study argues that: (1) Unlike urban maps, panoramic maps emphasize significant monasteries and landscape features, incorporating local legends and historical narratives, thus possessing strong narrative qualities. (2) These images likely functioned as pilgrimage souvenirs. Diverging from practical roadmaps, their primary goal was not strict realism but rather to convey the site’s sacredness and associated information through landscape painting conventions, allowing viewers to perceive its sacredness. (3) The woodblock print medium facilitated affordable reproduction, accelerating the circulation of the sacred site’s significance among the populace and aiding in its promotion. This research contends that the panoramic maps primarily function as folk landscape paintings reflecting the sacred site, capable only of approximating the relative positions of features. The widespread adoption of late-period woodblock printing enabled the low-cost reproduction and dissemination of the sacredness inherent in these Buddhist landscapes, constructing idealized spatial representations shaped by religious belief and geomantic principles. Full article

Miracle tales are almost the sole source for the investigation of the emergence and spread of the relic cult in the early phase of Chinese Buddhism. The earliest excavated relic casket dates back to 453 CE, over four centuries after Buddhism was introduced to China. Through a critical textual analysis of Ji Shenzhou Sanbao Gantonglu, it is evident that the initial form of relic veneration was based on miraculous responses. Legends about imperial relic worship before the 3rd century are all later fabrications. Two archeological finds—the alleged relic murals in a Han tomb at Horinger, Inner Mongolia, and the stūpa-shaped bronze vessel in Gongyi, Henan—are not directly related to relic veneration. Based on the available evidence, it is tentatively concluded that relic worship first emerged around the 3rd century in the vicinity of Luoyang, the capital of the Western Jin, and later spread to the south of the Yangtze River after the Yongjia chaos. The early worshippers included both monks and lay Buddhists, such as merchants and lower-ranking officials. Royal interest in relics did not arise until the 5th century. The rise of relic veneration in China occured two or three centuries later than that in Gandhāra, from which Chinese Buddhism was significantly influenced. Compared to the cult of images or scriptures, relic veneration also emerged relatively late in China. The reluctance to adopt relics as worship objects can be partly explained by (the mahāyāna) Buddhist doctrines and the Chinese cultural mentality. Full article

The Gobi Wall is a 321 km-long structure made of earth, stone, and wood, located in the Gobi highland desert of Mongolia. It is the least understood section of the medieval wall system that extends from China into Mongolia. This study aims to determine its builders, purpose, and chronology. Additionally, we seek to better understand the ecological implications of constructing such an extensive system of walls, trenches, garrisons, and fortresses in the remote and harsh environment of the Gobi Desert. Our field expedition combined remote sensing, pedestrian surveys, and targeted excavations at key sites. The results indicate that the garrison walls and main long wall were primarily constructed using rammed earth, with wood and stone reinforcements. Excavations of garrisons uncovered evidence of long-term occupation, including artifacts spanning from 2nd c. BCE to 19th c. CE. According to our findings, the main construction and usage phase of the wall and its associated structures occurred throughout the Xi Xia dynasty (1038–1227 CE), a period characterized by advanced frontier defense systems and significant geopolitical shifts. This study challenges the perception of such structures as being purely defensive, revealing the Gobi Wall’s multifunctional role as an imperial tool for demarcating boundaries, managing populations and resources, and consolidating territorial control. Furthermore, our spatial and ecological analysis demonstrates that the distribution of local resources, such as water and wood, was critical in determining the route of the wall and the placement of associated garrisons and forts. Other geographic factors, including the location of mountain passes and the spread of sand dunes, were strategically utilized to enhance the effectiveness of the wall system. The results of this study reshape our understanding of medieval Inner Asian imperial infrastructure and its lasting impact on geopolitical landscapes. By integrating historical and archeological evidence with geographical analysis of the locations of garrisons and fortifications, we underscore the Xi Xia kingdom’s strategic emphasis on regulating trade, securing transportation routes, and monitoring frontier movement. Full article

This paper investigates how the layout strategies of Xuanying’s Yiqiejing yinyi (mid-7th c.), the earliest surviving Chinese Buddhist glossary, evolved across manuscripts, Buddhist Canon editions, and Qing-era scholarly reprints from the 7th to 19th centuries. While Xuanying’s work serves as the central case due to its breadth of preservation and representativeness, this study also references Huiyuan’s glossary (early-8th c.) to highlight broader patterns of reception and adaptation, particularly in late imperial China. Through a usability–production efficiency framework, the study identifies a continuum from the flexible manuscript layouts to the standardized double-line format used in Buddhist woodblock printing, and later to Qing-era adaptations that integrated Buddhist glossaries into evidential studies. It argues that layout decisions were influenced not merely by practical considerations of use and production but also by changing conceptions of textual function and authority. It also highlights the unintended effects of layout standardization, which at times introduced new interpretive complexities. By demonstrating how layout actively influenced the reproduction and reception of Buddhist glossaries, this study offers a new perspective on the intersection of materiality, textual transmission, and reading practices in pre-modern China. Full article

The dialogue between Christianity and Buddhism began during the Tang dynasty (618–907) when East Syrian Christian missionaries from Persia arrived in China in 635. At this time, Buddhism was prospering under the Tang Empire, and the “Church of the East” was established, known as the “Brilliant (or Radiant) Teaching” (Jingjiao 景教). Historical records and archaeological evidence indicate that the Jingjiao church employed the method of “matching concepts” (geyi 格義). This methodology, initially utilized in the early stages of Buddhism’s dissemination from India and Central Asia to China for the translation of Buddhist texts, was similarly applied to the translation of Christian texts and concepts. These translation efforts and dissemination activities represent the earliest documented encounters between Christianity and Buddhism in premodern times. Furthermore, recent archaeological discoveries reveal that the dialogue between the two religions in China transpired through textual and visual representations (iconography) in the form of “borrowing pictures”. This study investigates these interactions across disciplines, exploring the evidence of early cultural exchange between Buddhism and Christianity while reviewing the motivations behind the missionaries’ translation and dissemination activities. It addresses pivotal questions regarding these early dialogues by examining the proselytization strategies employed and analyzing the reasons why imperial authorities sanctioned Christian activities and facilitated their propagation during the Tang dynasty. Full article

This study investigates the material properties, metallurgical processes, and corrosion mechanisms of bronze arrowheads excavated from the Imperial City of the Minyue Kingdom, a UNESCO World Heritage site in Wuyishan, Fujian, China. Using optical microscopy, SEM-EDS, XRF, XRD, and Raman spectroscopy, the researchers analyzed the cross-section and corrosion layers of the artifacts. Results show that the arrowheads are Cu-Sn-Pb alloys, with Cu (70.76%), Sn (8.73%), and Pb (8.72%), optimizing hardness, toughness, and casting performance. Corrosion analysis reveals a surface layer rich in Cu₂O, CuO, SnO₂, and Cu₂(OH)₂CO₃, driven by oxidation, carbonation, and sulfidation reactions. The corrosion layer exhibits stratification, porosity, and cracks, indicating the influence of oxygen, carbonate ions, and sulfides in burial environments. This study provides crucial insights into ancient bronze metallurgy and the long-term preservation of cultural relics. Full article

As an exemplary and quintessential representation of China’s late-stage religious stone-carving art, previous research on the Dazu Rock Carvings has primarily concentrated on the typical cave remains in core areas like Baoding and Beishan. These investigations have been highly adept at archeological typology and iconographic analysis. This study, based on 134 extant inscriptions, reassesses the Beishan and Nanshan stone-carving complexes from the perspective of cultural heritage integrity. Through long-term landscape analysis, we uncovered their distinctive value in the construction of religious spaces during the Northern and Southern Song Dynasties. During the Song Dynasty (Zhao Song Dynasty), Buddhism held sway in Beishan, while Nanshan developed a comprehensive Taoist pantheon system encompassing the Three Pure Ones (Sanqing) and the Six Imperial Divinities (Liuyu). Together, they formed a religious spatial pattern of “Sakyamuni in Beishan and Taoist deities in Nanshan”. Furthermore, since the Shaoxing era (1131–1162), inscriptions left by Confucian scholars and officials during their visits to these two mountains have been frequently encountered. This spatial overlap phenomenon mirrors the profound integration of religious practices and secular power in the Bashu region during the Song Dynasty. This research breaks through the traditional case-study paradigm. By systematically examining the spatio-temporal evolution of the stone-carving complexes and the network of inscriptions, it reveals that the religious landscape of Dazu is, in essence, the outcome of the cumulative layering of political power, economic resources, and cultural aspirations across diverse historical periods. In particular, the transformation of Beishan and Nanshan from the merit caves of military generals in the late Tang Dynasty to the cultural spaces of the gentry class in the Song Dynasty vividly demonstrates the local practice model in the secularization process of Chinese religious art from the 10th to the 13th century. Full article

Hangzhou was the political and economic center of the Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279 AD) and also the southern end of the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal during the Ming and Qing Dynasties (1368–1644 AD). This historical position allowed the city’s economy to develop rapidly and influenced the form of its polychrome paintings with the imperial official style of the north China. However, due to the high temperature and rainy natural preservation conditions, southern polychrome paintings have always been a weak link in Chinese architectural polychrome painting craftsmanship. This study focuses on two well-preserved official-style architectural polychrome paintings in the grand halls from the late Qing period in Hangzhou. Through multi-techniques such as optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microprobe with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis (SEM-EDX), micro-Raman spectroscopy, micro-Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (μ-FTIR), and pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS), it was found that there is a significant difference from the reported common non-ground architectural paintings in the south, typically having four-layer structures with a white base and ground plaster layer in preparation for painting. The appearance of pigments such as artificial ultramarine (Na₆Al₄Si₆S₄O₂₀) and emerald green (Cu(C₂H₃O₂)₂·3Cu(AsO₂)₂) indicates that the paintings were made at least after the 1830s, and the use of malachite green dye and copper phthalocyanine blue (PB 15:X) suggests that unrecorded restorations were also performed after the 20th century. All samples are coated with a layer of alkyd resin, which may have been added during the repairs in the latter half of the 20th century, leading to the black discoloration of the present paintings, especially in areas where emerald green was used. This study provides an important case for the study of the official style of polychrome painting craftsmanship in the southern region of China and also offers important references for the future protection and restoration of traditional architectural polychrome painting. Full article

This essay explores the various types of spaces, primarily montane forested areas, where human access was restricted, either conditionally or entirely, during late imperial times. The range of restrictions always included felling trees, but often also encompassed other forms of extraction from local ecosystems. Based on the motivations for setting up and regulating such zones, it proposes a typology that includes imperial parks and graves, sacred sites, military exclusion zones, and certain forested commons. Based on some commonalities between these types, it concludes by reflecting on the place of notions of sacrality in local policies that directly impacted forested areas. Full article

After having been deceived by the Géluk government about the death of the Fifth Dalai Lama for almost 15 years, the Qing empire decided to strengthen its surveillance on Tibet by deploying espionage networks operated by spy lamas based in Xining and Dartsédo on Sino–Tibetan borderlands. Accordingly, the Qing successfully intervened in the reincarnation system of Tibetan Buddhism by taking advantage of the Sixth Dalai Lama’s issues. By establishing a new system of espionage operated by a eunuch lama serving in the imperial court, the Qing finally deposed the Sixth Dalai Lama and secretly murdered him in 1706. The Sixth Dalai Lama’s death embodied the monumental transition that significantly shaped the destiny of Tibet, China, and Inner Asia in the following three centuries. By investigating the Sixth Dalai Lama’s controversies, this article sheds light on how the Qing dynasty embarked on constructing its imperial enterprise in Inner Asia based on intelligence collection and information manipulation. By using multilingual sources in Tibetan, Mongolian, Manchu, and Chinese, the present study shows how the Qing empire overcame the challenges of information deficiency and lingual differences by developing intelligence networks and multilingual mechanisms to consolidate its governance in Inner Asia. Full article