Search Results (15)

Recent advancements in large language models (LLMs) have increased the necessity of alignment and safety mechanisms. Despite these efforts, jailbreak attacks remain a significant threat, exploiting vulnerabilities to elicit harmful responses. While white-box attacks, such as the Greedy Coordinate Gradient (GCG) method, have demonstrated promise, their efficacy is often limited by non-smooth optimization landscapes and a tendency to converge to local minima. To mitigate these issues, we propose Spatial Momentum GCG (SM-GCG), a novel method that incorporates spatial momentum. This technique aggregates gradient information across multiple transformation spaces—including text, token, one-hot, and embedding spaces—to stabilize the optimization process and enhance the estimation of update directions, thereby more effectively exploiting model vulnerabilities to elicit harmful responses. Experimental results on models including Vicuna-7B, Guanaco-7B, and Llama2-7B-Chat demonstrate that SM-GCG significantly enhances the attack success rate in white-box settings. The method achieves a 10–15% improvement in attack success rate over baseline methods against robust models such as Llama2, while also exhibiting enhanced transferability to black-box models. These findings indicate that spatial momentum effectively mitigates the problem of local optima in discrete prompt optimization, thereby offering a more powerful and generalizable approach for red-team assessments of LLM safety. Warning: This paper contains potentially offensive and harmful text. Full article

Resistance training (RT) has been shown to produce beneficial effects, including on quality of life, renal function, physical fitness, and survival rates in kidney transplant for 24 recipients. However, the optimal periodization of load components for this population remains unclear, as no consensus has been established. This study aimed to characterize the load components of RT programs in kidney transplant recipients. A scoping review was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR). The literature search was performed up to October 2024 in MEDLINE/PubMed, the Web of Science Core Collection, SCOPUS, ScienceDirect, and SPORTDiscus. Only studies that included RT as part of the intervention were considered. The RT variables analyzed included intervention duration, weekly frequency, session duration, number and types of exercises, intensity, number of sets, rest time between sets, progressive overload, and execution velocity. A total of 645 studies were identified, of which 15 met the eligibility criteria and were selected for analysis. The primary strategy for intensity control was based on the percentage of one-repetition maximum (%1RM), with training zones ranging from 30% to 80%. The number of sets varied from two to eight, while repetitions ranged from 10 to 20. The rest intervals between sets lasted between one and five minutes. The most highly implemented type of resistance involved the use of dumbbells, body weight, and elastic bands. A high degree of heterogeneity was identified in load periodization parameters, highlighting a lack of consensus in exercise prescription for this population. However, this review established general criteria that can serve as a reference for exercise professionals to develop more structured and effective training programs. Full article

Understanding maternal behaviour is essential for good animal husbandry; yet, little scientific information currently exists regarding nursing behaviour of alpacas (Vicugna pacos). Moreover, allonursing (the nursing of non-filial offspring) has only been documented in captive non-domesticated guanacos. This study aimed to (1) describe the nursing behaviour of alpacas within traditional husbandry systems in their place of origin, and in foreign conditions, and to (2) investigate the occurrence of allonursing in alpacas. A total of 1899 nursing bouts were observed in the Andes and Central Europe. Additionally, 102 Andean farmers were asked if they observed allonursing in their herds. Nursing behaviour was similar at both locations, with most of the nursing bouts initiated by crias and terminated by dams. However, several significant differences between localities were noted, such as the less frequent sniffing of crias by Andean dams. Crias’ age and sex did not affect the percentage of nursing bouts initiated or terminated by the dams. Rare cases of allonursing were recorded in Central Europe (n = 5), and 18.6% of surveyed Andean farmers reported allonursing in their herds. This study provides insight into alpaca nursing and allonursing behaviour, which may contribute towards their management both in their place of origin and farther. Full article

Sarcocystis spp. are coccidian protozoans belonging to the Apicomplexa phylum. As with other members of this phylum, they are obligate intracellular parasites with complex cellular machinery for the invasion of host cells. Sarcocystis spp. display dixenous life cycles, involving a predator and a prey as definitive and intermediate hosts, respectively. Specifically, these parasites develop sarcocysts in the tissues of their intermediate hosts, ranging in size from microscopic to visible to the naked eye, depending on the species. When definitive hosts consume sarcocysts, infective forms are produced in the digestive system and discharged into the environment via feces. Consumption of oocyst-contaminated water and pasture by the intermediate host completes the parasitic cycle. More than 200 Sarcocystis spp. have been described to infect wildlife, domestic animals, and humans, some of which are of economic or public health importance. Interestingly, Old World camelids (dromedary, domestic Bactrian camel, and wild Bactrian camel) and New World or South American camelids (llama, alpaca, guanaco, and vicuña) can each be infected by two different Sarcocystis spp: Old World camelids by S. cameli (producing micro- and macroscopic cysts) and S. ippeni (microscopic cysts); and South American camelids by S. aucheniae (macroscopic cysts) and S. masoni (microscopic cysts). Large numbers of Old and New World camelids are bred for meat production, but the finding of macroscopic sarcocysts in carcasses significantly hampers meat commercialization. This review tries to compile the information that is currently accessible regarding the biology, epidemiology, phylogeny, and diagnosis of Sarcocystis spp. that infect Old and New World camelids. In addition, knowledge gaps will be identified to encourage research that will lead to the control of these parasites. Full article

The Peruvian guanaco (Lama guanicoe cacsilensis) is classified as being “in critical danger of extinction” by the government. In this study, we evaluate how the conflict between farmers and guanacos in the Susapaya and Estique Districts, Tacna Department (Southern Peru) may represent a threat to their survival. To evaluate the situation, we 1. Conducted field surveys to monitor guanaco presence, 2. Used available remote sensing data to map guanaco movement, and 3. interviewed the impacted farmers concerning their losses. Remote sensing data showed that sedentary guanaco family groups located in prime steppe vegetation habitats never entered agricultural areas, while field surveys showed that bachelor bands and solitary individuals did, perhaps seeking forage due to growing population pressure. Interview data found that 90% of community farmers felt that guanacos were a problem best resolved by better fencing (45%), hunting (19%), or increased security (16%), and 92% saw no value in the conservation of the species. Hunting is illegal, given the critically endangered status of guanacos in Peru, so additional efforts are needed to both educate those who feel guanacos are a menace and involve them in efforts to preserve the species. Full article

Conservation strategies for huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus), listed as an endangered cervid by IUCN, have not helped to reverse its declining population trends. Recent evaluations of historical data revealed that they also inhabited lower valleys and grasslands as residents or only during winter. However, the dogma persists that huemuls do not need such habitats. To determine if more solid evidence exists to back up or refute our hypothesis that huemuls once inhabited lower valleys and grasslands, we researched the literature and discovered additional relevant historical sources on this species. These new findings substantiate that huemuls also occupied unforested areas, reaching the Atlantic coast, and resided on various islands including Tierra del Fuego, and that their co-occurrence with guanaco was frequent. Their extreme naivety towards humans resulted in their extirpation on winter ranges settled by humans, resulting in refugee huemuls year-round on remote mountain summer ranges. The ease by which indigenous people could kill them for subsistence and commercial export of hides to Europe, followed by the lowlands becoming modified by settlers and their exotic species facilitated the huemuls’ extirpation. The hypothesis of a dramatic modification of the original biogeographical distribution of huemuls is supported by anatomical and ecological features along with historical accounts. Sedentariness on only rugged summer ranges makes long-term survival of this species crucially challenging and requires sound conservation strategies that incorporate geographical areas of their former distribution. Full article

Co-production of conservation projects is favored by incorporating local ecological knowledge into project design and implementation. Using a mixed method approach, we asked how the territorial practices and knowledge of cowboys and livestock farmers inform their attitudes to this proposed project. We predicted that cowboy territorial practices would be reduced in diversity compared to the past, and that this may be associated with a reduction in coping or adaptation capacity in the face of environmental challenges. We further predicted that due to growing environmental and social pressures reducing traditional livelihood opportunities for this group, they are likely to see the guanaco reintroduction project in a conflictual and negative light. We additionally predicted that they would perceive local carnivorous species in a conflictual and negative way. We found that territorial practices among the sample had indeed decreased in diversity. The sample coped with changing socio-ecological conditions by taking up other jobs. However, we also found that they had majority favorable views on the guanaco reintroduction project. Yet their knowledge of current guanaco behavior led them to believe that the project would fail. However, they also observed that pumas and condors changed their behaviors. We suggest that there are opportunities to co-produce knowledge about the possibility of flexible and adaptive guanaco behavior, which may lead to restoration and create more sustainable future scenarios, by engaging with the territorial practices and local ecological knowledge of cowboys and livestock farmers. Full article

Rotavirus A (RVA) possesses a genome of 11 double-stranded (ds) RNA segments, and each segment encodes one protein, with the exception of segment 11. NSP4 is a non-structural multifunctional protein encoded by segment 10 that defines the E-genotype. From the 31 E-genotypes described, genotype E12 has been described in Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Brazil in RVA strains infecting different animal species and humans. In this work, we studied the evolutionary relationships of RVA strains carrying the E12 genotype in South America using phylogenetic and phylodynamic approaches. We found that the E12 genotype has a South American origin, with a guanaco (Lama guanicoe) strain as natural host. Interestingly, all the other reported RVA strains carrying the E12 genotype in equine, bovine, caprine, and human strains are related to RVA strains of camelid origin. The evolutionary path and genetic footprint of the E12 genotype were reconstructed starting with the introduction of non-native livestock species into the American continent with the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. The imported animal species were in close contact with South American camelids, and the offspring were exposed to the native RVA strains brought from Europe and the new RVA circulating in guanacos, resulting in the emergence of new RVA strains in the current lineages’ strongly species-specific adaption. In conclusion, we proposed the NSP4 E12 genotype as a genetic geographic marker in the RVA strains circulating in different animal species in South America. Full article

This research work allowed the development of a scientific approach to a remedy widely used until today in ranches or rural posts as an alternative medicine: the “guanaco stone” or bezoar. Bezoars are compactions of various chemical substances, hairs, vegetable fibers and foreign bodies, which are formed mainly between the divisions of the stomach of guanacos (Lama guanicoe). The ethnomedicine of this Patagonian region uses powdered bezoars ingested with water or in infusions, as a medicine that improves digestive and renal functions, and especially alexipharmaceuticals. The objective of this trial was to find “in vitro” the pharmacological foundations of bezoars. Samples of bezoars, obtained from the local refrigerator, were used in the test. For this, their density, colors, and hardness were determined. One of the bezoars was totally pulverized, the powder obtained was observed under an optical microscope with a magnification of 1000×. Subsequently, the chemical composition was sought by examining the presence of P, K, and N, as well as the pH. The results made it possible to determine the pH was neutral and the presence of P, N, and K was medium. It is concluded in this first approach to the subject that according to these determinations, bezoars can act via two mechanisms: the presence of phosphates acts as chelators of ingested toxins, facilitating their elimination from the body, but also the minerals that together stimulate the secretion of acid gastric and digestive enzymes. Full article

Anaerobic fungi (AF), belonging to the phylum Neocallimastigomycota, are a pivotal component of the digestive tract microbiome of various herbivorous animals. In the last decade, the diversity of AF has rapidly expanded due to the exploration of numerous (novel) habitats. Studies aiming at understanding the role of AF require robust and reliable isolation and cultivation techniques, many of which remained unchanged for decades. Using amplicon sequencing, we compared three different media: medium with rumen fluid (RF), depleted rumen fluid (DRF), and no rumen fluid (NRF) to enrich the AF from the feces of yak, as a rumen control; and Przewalski’s horse, llama, guanaco, and elephant, as a non-rumen habitats. The results revealed the selective enrichment of Piromyces and Neocallimastix from the feces of elephant and llama, respectively, in the RF medium. Similarly, the enrichment culture in DRF medium explicitly manifested Piromyces-related sequences from elephant feces. Five new clades (MM1-5) were defined from llama, guanaco, yak, and elephant feces that could as well be enriched from llama and elephant samples using non-conventional DRF and NRF media. This study presents evidence for the selective enrichment of certain genera in medium with RF and DRF from rumen as well as from non-rumen samples. NRF medium is suggested for the isolation of AF from non-rumen environments. Full article

Humans arrived in the Patagonia region of southern South America in the late Pleistocene period, ca. 15,000 years ago. A few centuries later, during a period of rapid warming, the megafauna went extinct in Patagonia, as well as some smaller species, like the guanaco (Lama guanicoe), in the southern portion of the region. As in other regions, extinctions probably occurred due to a combination of effects of climate and direct and indirect impacts of humans on wildlife communities. We reviewed recent archeological and genetic-based discoveries about numbers and distributions of humans and wildlife and their early interactions and used them to draw lessons for current debates among managers and scientists. Recent discoveries, for example, help us understand (1) the population limitation mechanisms and other interactions involving guanacos, livestock, forage, predators, and scavengers; (2) the magnitude of wildlife movements and the need for landscape-level planning for conservation; (3) the importance of indirect effects of human activities on wildlife communities; and (4) the compounded effects of human activities and climate change on wildlife. We believe these lessons drawn from deep time and recent history can help define new priorities for research and management and inform our conservation vision for the 21st century, a period when dramatic climate change impacts will add challenges to a region subject to a century of overgrazing and other anthropogenic pressures. Full article

In extensive livestock production, high densities may inhibit regulation processes, maintaining high levels of intraspecific competition over time. During competition, individuals typically modify their behaviours, particularly feeding and bite rates, which can therefore be used as indicators of competition. Over eight consecutive seasons, we investigated if variation in herd density, food availability, and the presence of a potential competitor, the guanaco (Lama guanicoe), was related with behavioural changes in domestic sheep in Chilean Patagonia. Focal sampling, instantaneous scan sampling, measures of bite and movement rates were used to quantify behavioural changes in domestic sheep. We found that food availability increased time spent feeding, while herd density was associated with an increase in vigilant behaviour and a decrease in bite rate, but only when food availability was low. Guanaco presence appeared to have no impact on sheep behaviour. Our results suggest that the observed behavioural changes in domestic sheep are more likely due to intraspecific competition rather than interspecific competition. Consideration of intraspecific competition where guanaco and sheep co-graze on pastures could allow management strategies to focus on herd density, according to rangeland carrying capacity. Full article

For an adequate management of natural grasslands, the knowledge and understanding of the dietary habits of herbivores and their trophic interactions are fundamental. During two summer seasons, in a mountain range of a sector of the Coquimbo Region, Chile, the botanical composition, diversity, and similarity of the diets of horses, European brown hares, and guanacos were studied, as was the selectivity of the main grassland plant species, using feces microhistology. The contribution of hydromorphic grasses was similar in the diets of guanacos (35.90 ± 7.27%) and horses (32.25 ± 4.50%), differing from that found in hares (16.32 ± 5.32%). Dryland grassland grasses contributed similarly to the diets of horses (13.21 ± 3.22%), guanacos (22.53 ± 5.21%) and hares (18.35 ± 3.81%), as well as graminoids, which averaged 47.79 ± 6.66%, 35.63 ± 10.76% and 38.94 ± 7.88%, in diets of horses, guanacos, and hares, respectively, without significant differences. The contribution of herbaceous dicotyledons was only important in hares (23.76 ± 3.76%), while that of shrubs was low (<3%) and similar among the three herbivores. Dietary diversity was similar among the three herbivore species (73–79%), with a higher degree of dietary overlap between horses and guanacos (55.7%), which was higher than that obtained between hares and guanacos (50%) and between horses and hares (48%), for which there would be a potential trophic competition between them. The most abundant species of dryland and wet grasslands generally fulfill a functional role of subsistence and a nutritional role of maintenance; however, for the three herbivores studied, a different selective behavior was evidenced, according to their physiological differences, with the selection process little affected by the relative abundance of these species in the grasslands. Due to the above, herbivores resort to the selection of certain species that, despite being not very abundant in grasslands, play an important nutritional and functional role, improving the quality of their diets. Full article

Extensive livestock production and urbanization entail modifications of natural landscapes, including installation of fences, development of agriculture, urbanization of natural areas, and construction of roads and infrastructure that, together, impact native fauna. Here, we evaluate the diversity and genetic structure of endemic guanacos (Lama guanicoe) of the Monte and Patagonian Steppe of central Argentina, which have been reduced and displaced by sheep ranching and other impacts of human activities. Analyses of genetic variation of microsatellite loci and d-loop revealed high levels of genetic variation and latitudinal segregation of mitochondrial haplotypes. There were indications of at least two historical populations in the Monte and the Patagonian Steppe based on shared haplotypes and shared demographic history among localities. Currently, guanacos are structured into three groups that were probably reconnected relatively recently, possibly facilitated by a reduction of sheep and livestock in recent decades and a recovery of the guanaco populations. These results provide evidence of the genetic effects of livestock activity and urbanization on wild herbivore populations, which were possibly exacerbated by an arid environment with limited productive areas. The results highlight the importance of enacting conservation management plans to ensure the persistence of ancestral and ecologically functional populations of guanacos. Full article

Roads can affect animals as well as their habits at different levels. Avoidance behavior is a common response of animals to this type of perturbation, preventing access to areas rich in resources. The effects of roads on ungulates have not been studied in South America extensively, especially in arid environments. We have studied the space use by ungulates in relation to roads, using a dung heap count and camera traps. The aim was to evaluate whether paved road and unpaved road may have an effect on the spatial use of a low density population of guanacos (Lama guanicoe) in Ischigualasto Provincial Park, Argentina. We observed an increase in dung heap abundance in unpaved road as respect to paved road, this difference was larger for both. Besides, we recorded less individuals in paved road zones than in unpaved road zones. This showed that roads, especially paved roads, negatively affect the space used by guanacos. Our results are relevant to the management and conservation of animal populations in protected areas since spatial segregation due to the presence of roads may lead to the isolation of individuals. It is important to pay attention and further assess the effects that roads can have in the native fauna. Full article