Saved Queries

by Katie N. Kraus, Stacy L. Bevan, Sarah Moore Smith, Maeci H. Armstrong, Brooke Campbell Jeppesen, Catherine Fish and Heidi J. Wengreen

Dietetics 2025, 4(4), 50; https://doi.org/10.3390/dietetics4040050 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

With the growing use of AI, it is important to know target audiences’ perceptions of its use. A convenience sample of students were invited to take an online survey in which they were randomly assigned to Group 1 (evaluated a student-generated blog; n = 456) or Group 2 (evaluated an AI-generated blog; n = 492). The results of independent t-tests and chi-squared tests indicated no group differences in ratings of ease of recipe preparation, time to prepare the recipe, utilization of common ingredients, and frequency of intended use of the blog. The student-generated blog was rated higher on budget friendliness (p = 0.025). A total of 42% indicated they would be less willing to use a blog if they knew it was AI-generated, while 43% indicated that it would make no difference and 4.4% indicated being more likely to view the AI-generated blog. Two researchers used a thematic analysis approach to evaluate participants’ free responses regarding the likelihood of using a recipe blog that was AI-generated. Participant perceptions of an AI-generated blog ranged from very positive to very negative. Some themes highlighted the potential benefits of AI or a more neutral stance indicating that “a recipe is a recipe”. The majority of themes highlighted the benefits of content that was created, verified, or tested by humans, or espoused a human touch. Students should be trained to cater to consumer preferences, and to add value in a world that includes AI-generated content. Full article

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20 pages, 8745 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design Optimization of Sensor-Embedded Bearing Rings in Heavy-Duty Electric Shovel Applications via Multi-Physics Coupling Analysis and Experimental Validation

by Longkai Wang, Fengyuan Liu, Can Hu and Hongbin Tang

Machines 2025, 13(11), 1008; https://doi.org/10.3390/machines13111008 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

To enhance the thermo-mechanical coupling performance of heavy-duty bearings with smart sensing capability in electric shovel applications, this study proposes a multi-objective optimization methodology for sensor-embedded bearing rings incorporating smart sensor-embedded grooves. Driven by multi-physics coupling analysis and experimental validation, a coupled thermal–mechanical model integrating frictional heat generation, heat transfer, and stress response was established. Parametric finite element simulations were conducted, with varying groove depths and axial positions. A comprehensive performance index combining three metrics—maximum temperature, equivalent stress, and principal strain—was formulated to evaluate design efficacy. Experimental tests on thermal and strain responses were employed to validate the simulation model confirming its predictive ability. Among the 21 parameter combinations, the configuration featuring an 8 mm groove depth located 20 mm from the large end face exhibited relatively optimal synergy across thermal dissipation, structural strength, and strain sensitivity. The proposed framework provides a certain theoretical and practical guidance for the design and optimization of the sensor-embedded groove structure in intelligent heavy-duty bearings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Machine Design and Theory)

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21 pages, 3930 KB

Open AccessReview

Bariatric–Metabolic Surgery: The State of the Art and the Management of Complications

by Silvia Tedesco, Nadia Campelli, Stefano Lunetti, Giulia Nicolai, Cristina Marmorale, Albano Nicolai and Marina Taus

Dietetics 2025, 4(4), 49; https://doi.org/10.3390/dietetics4040049 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

Bariatric surgery is a highly effective therapeutic strategy in the treatment of severe obesity, but it carries significant risks, both in the short and long terms. However, many of these complications can be avoided by appropriate patient selection, comprehensive assessment of clinical conditions, and structured follow-up including clinical, nutritional, and psychological monitoring. Achieving these objectives requires a meticulous program involving the entire multidisciplinary team and lays the foundations for proper patient compliance. Furthermore, recent studies have begun to explore the systemic effects of bariatric–metabolic surgery, with benefits extending far beyond simple weight loss and effects on both morbidity and mortality. Research has documented improvements in cardiovascular risk factors, insulin sensitivity, and hormonal balance, with substantial effects on the three main comorbidities of obesity: cardiovascular risk and hypertension, T2DM, and OSAS. In conclusion, bariatric surgery, while highly effective in treating severe obesity and its comorbidities, involves significant anatomical and physiological changes that alter nutrient absorption and digestion. These changes can lead to a number of short-, medium-, and long-term nutritional complications that require close monitoring and targeted dietary interventions. Full article

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27 pages, 15883 KB

Open AccessReview

Targeting the Gut–Mammary Axis for Understanding Mastitis Pathogenesis and Therapeutic Strategies

by Yan Li, Menghan Wang, Wenqiang Liu, Mingyang Geng, Mohammed Asiri, Fuad M. Alzahrani, Khalid J. Alzahrani, Qingshan Ma, Changfa Wang and Muhammad Zahoor Khan

Vet. Sci. 2025, 12(11), 1049; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12111049 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

Mastitis represents one of the most economically devastating diseases in dairy production, causing billions of dollars in annual losses through reduced milk quality and quantity. Recent advances in microbiome research have unveiled a critical gut–mammary axis that fundamentally influences mastitis susceptibility and pathogenesis in dairy cattle. Through comprehensive analysis of microbial communities across multiple anatomical sites, we demonstrate that mastitis development involves systematic disruption of both mammary and gastrointestinal microbiomes, characterized by reduced beneficial bacterial populations and increased pathogenic species. Healthy animals maintain balanced microbial ecosystems dominated by protective taxa including Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, and beneficial Lactobacillus species, while mastitis-affected animals exhibit dysbiotic shifts toward Proteobacteria dominance, elevated Streptococcus and Staphylococcus populations, and compromised microbial diversity. Mechanistic investigations reveal that gut microbiota disruption compromises systemic immune competence, alters metabolite production including short-chain fatty acids and bile acids, and influences inflammatory mediators that circulate to mammary tissue. Therapeutic interventions targeting this axis, including probiotics, prebiotics, and plant-derived compounds, demonstrate significant efficacy in restoring microbiome homeostasis and reducing mastitis severity. These findings establish the gut–mammary axis as a fundamental regulatory mechanism in mastitis pathogenesis, opening new avenues for microbiome-based prevention and treatment strategies that could significantly enhance dairy health management while addressing antimicrobial resistance concerns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mammary Development and Health: Challenges and Advances)

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19 pages, 8412 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Thymus-Independent Artificial Organoid System Supports Complete Thymopoiesis from Rhesus Macaque-Derived Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells

by Callie Wilde, Saleem Anwar, Yu-Tim Yau, Sunil Badve, Yesim Gokmen Polar, John D. Roback, Rama Rao Amara, R. Paul Johnson and Sheikh Abdul Rahman

Biomedicines 2025, 13(11), 2692; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines13112692 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

Background: T cell regeneration in the thymus is intrinsically linked to the T cell-biased lineage differentiation of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs). Although nonhuman primates (NHPs) serve as indispensable models for studying thymic output under physiological and pathological conditions, a non-animal technology facilitating efficient TCR-selected T cell development and evaluating T cell output from NHP-derived HSPCs has been lacking. To address this gap, we established a rhesus macaque-specific artificial thymic organoid (RhATO) modeling primary thymus-tissue-free thymopoiesis. Methods: The RhATO was developed by expressing Rhesus macaque (RM) Delta-like Notch ligand 1 in mouse bone marrow stromal cell line (MS5-RhDLL1). The bone marrow-derived HSPCs were aggregated with MS5-RhDLL1 and cultured forming 3D artificial thymic organoids. These organoids were maintained under defined cytokine conditions to support complete T cell developmental ontogeny. T cell developmental progression was assessed by flow cytometry, and TCR-selected subsets were analyzed for phenotypic and functional properties. Results: RhATOs recapitulated the complete spectrum of thymopoietic events, including emergence of thymus-seeding progenitors, CD4⁺CD3⁻ immature single-positive and CD4⁺CD8⁺ double-positive early thymocytes, and mature CD4⁺ or CD8⁺ single-positive subsets. These subsets expressed CD38, consistent with the recent thymic emigrant phenotype, and closely mirrored canonical T cell ontogeny described in humans. RhATO-derived T cells were TCR-selected and demonstrated cytokine expression upon stimulation. Conclusions: This study provides the first demonstration of an NHP-specific artificial thymic technology that faithfully models thymopoiesis. RhATO represents a versatile ex vivo platform for studying T cell development, immunopathogenesis, and generating TCR selected T cells. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Immune Cell Reprogramming: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Approaches)

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20 pages, 10851 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Feature-Based Homography Pipelines for Dual-Camera Registration in Acupoint Annotation

by Thathsara Nanayakkara, Hadi Sedigh Malekroodi, Jaeuk Sul, Chang-Su Na, Myunggi Yi and Byeong-il Lee

J. Imaging 2025, 11(11), 388; https://doi.org/10.3390/jimaging11110388 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

Reliable acupoint localization is essential for developing artificial intelligence (AI) and extended reality (XR) tools in traditional Korean medicine; however, conventional annotation of 2D images often suffers from inter- and intra-annotator variability. This study presents a low-cost dual-camera imaging system that fuses infrared (IR) and RGB views on a Raspberry Pi 5 platform, incorporating an IR ink pen in conjunction with a 780 nm emitter array to standardize point visibility. Among the tested marking materials, the IR ink showed the highest contrast and visibility under IR illumination, making it the most suitable for acupoint detection. Five feature detectors (SIFT, ORB, KAZE, AKAZE, and BRISK) were evaluated with two matchers (FLANN and BF) to construct representative homography pipelines. Comparative evaluations across multiple camera-to-surface distances revealed that KAZE + FLANN achieved the lowest mean 2D Error (1.17 ± 0.70 px) and the lowest mean aspect-aware error (0.08 ± 0.05%) while remaining computationally feasible on the Raspberry Pi 5. In hand-image experiments across multiple postures, the dual-camera registration maintained a mean 2D error below ~3 px and a mean aspect-aware error below ~0.25%, confirming stable and reproducible performance. The proposed framework provides a practical foundation for generating high-quality acupoint datasets, supporting future AI-based localization, XR integration, and automated acupuncture-education systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition)

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21 pages, 680 KB

Open AccessReview

Personalized Approaches to Patients with Intra-Abdominal Infections

by Massimo Sartelli, Federico Coccolini, Francesco M. Labricciosa, Walter Siquini, Giuseppe Pipitone, Miriam Palmieri, Valentina Sbacco, Carlo Vallicelli, Cristina Marmorale and Fausto Catena

J. Clin. Med. 2025, 14(21), 7774; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm14217774 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

Intra-abdominal infections (IAIs) continue to be an important cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The optimal management of patients with IAIs relies on early and accurate diagnosis, prompt and adequate source control, appropriate antimicrobial therapy based on the PK/PD principles, as well as hemodynamic support with intravenous fluids and vasopressors in critically ill patients. This narrative review aims to suggest five basic factors which should always be considered when assessing patients with IAIs to provide the most adequate treatment. These factors include the anatomical extent of the infection, the origin of the infection, the patient’s clinical status, the suspected pathogens and their resistance profiles, and immune competence. The continuous assessment of these elements is essential in managing complicated IAIs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sepsis: New Insights into Diagnosis and Treatment)

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16 pages, 3940 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effectiveness of High-Solid Loading Treatments to Enhance Nutrient and Antioxidant Bioavailability in Codium tomentosum

by Catarina Ramos-Oliveira, Marta Ferreira, Isabel Belo, Aires Oliva-Teles and Helena Peres

Phycology 2025, 5(4), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/phycology5040069 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

Macroalgae have low nutrient bioavailability, often requiring pretreatments—physical, chemical, or biological—typically using low-solid loading hydrolysis, which produces separate liquid and solid phases. In contrast, high-solid loading hydrolysis offers a single-phase alternative, though it remains underexplored for macroalgae. This study evaluated the effectiveness of high-solid loading hydrolysis for breaking polysaccharides and increasing the availability of nutrients and antioxidant compounds in Codium tomentosum. Treatments using mixtures containing 25% dry biomass and 75% water or 0.5N and 1N NaOH, autoclaved for 30 or 60 min, were performed. Among the tested treatments, high-solid loading alkaline autoclaved treatment (1N NaOH, 60 min) was most effective in reducing neutral detergent fiber and enhancing the availability of bioactive compounds, particularly soluble proteins and phenols. Based on these results, a sequential enzymatic hydrolysis with Natugrain^® at 0.2 and 0.4% was also applied to pre-treated C. tomentosum with water or 1N NaOH. Enzymatic hydrolysis after autoclaving had no major effect on fiber, soluble protein, or ash, but increased phenol levels. In conclusion, high-solid loading alkaline treatment (1N NaOH) followed by enzymatic hydrolysis with Natugrain^® enzyme reduced fiber content and enhanced soluble protein and phenolic compounds, thereby improving the nutritional and functional potential of C. tomentosum for inclusion in animal feeds. Full article

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24 pages, 4391 KB

Open AccessReview

Progress in Self-Repair Technology for Concrete Cracks via Biomineralization

by Meirong Zong, Wenhao Wang, Haozhe Ma, Nshuti Cedrick, Yuting Sun, Xiancui Yan, Hui Liu, Pinghua Zhu and Minqi Hua

Materials 2025, 18(21), 5004; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18215004 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

Biomineralized self-healing concrete is a type of concrete that, during its service life, induces the generation of calcium carbonate through the participation of microorganisms or active enzymes, thereby achieving self-repair of cracks at different times. Self-healing concrete based on biomineralization can achieve sustainable crack repair and could enhance the strength and extend the service life of buildings. This article comprehensively analyzes the latest progress in bio-self-healing concrete, including microbial-based self-healing, enzyme-induced calcium carbonate precipitation (EICP), microcapsule-loaded microbial in situ remediation, and bio-inorganic mineral synergist self-healing technology. The maximum repairable width of the crack is 2.0 mm, and concrete strength can be increased by 135%. These methods offer new insights and strategies for the repair of concrete cracks, providing fundamental knowledge for the later application of intelligent engineering of bio-self-healing concrete and the analysis of micro-interface mechanisms. At the same time, they clarify the practical possibility of microbial technology in building materials science and engineering and offer key theoretical support for the long-term development of China’s construction industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Biomaterials—2nd Edition)

20 pages, 3686 KB

Open AccessArticle

Decoding Temporally Encoded 3D Objects from Low-Cost Wearable Electroencephalography

by John LaRocco, Qudsia Tahmina, Saideh Zia, Shahil Merchant, Jason Forrester, Eason He and Ye Lin

Technologies 2025, 13(11), 501; https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies13110501 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

Decoding visual content from neural activity remains a central challenge at the intersections of engineering, neuroscience, and computational modeling. Prior work has primarily leveraged electroencephalography (EEG) with generative models to recover static images. In this study, we advance EEG-based decoding by introducing a temporal encoding framework that approximates dynamic object transformations across time. EEG recordings from healthy participants (n = 20) were used to model neural representations of objects presented in “initial” and “later” states. Individualized classifiers trained on time-specific EEG signatures achieved high discriminability, with Random Forest models reaching a mean accuracy and standard deviation of 92 ± 2% and a mean AUC-ROC and standard deviation of 0.87 ± 0.10, driven largely by gamma- and beta-band activity at the frontal electrodes. These results confirm and extend evidence of strong interindividual variability, showing that subject-specific models outperform intersubject approaches in decoding temporally varying object representations. Beyond classification, we demonstrate that pairwise temporal encodings can be integrated into a generative pipeline to produce approximated reconstructions of short video sequences and 3D object renderings. Our findings establish that temporal EEG features, captured using low-cost open-source hardware, are sufficient to support the decoding of visual content across discrete time points, providing a versatile platform for potential applications in neural decoding, immersive media, and human–computer interaction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Biomedical Engineering and Artificial Intelligence for Neurological Health)

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15 pages, 2467 KB

Open AccessArticle

Waste Oyster Shell/Graphene Oxide Composite as a Dual-Functional Soil Conditioner and SRF: Impacts on Soil pH and Nutrient Availability

by Hsuhui Cheng, Yuxing Xian, Yetong Lu, Ziying Zhang, Yishi He and Xiangying Hao

Nanomaterials 2025, 15(21), 1666; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15211666 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

Graphene oxide (GO) was prepared by a waterless synthesis route to generate GO sheets, which were then applied to coat calcined oyster shell with fertilizer (OSF) pellets, resulting in the creation of an OSF-GO particle. The GO sheets (ID/IG = 0.86) were characterized by Raman spectroscopy, which showed that the GO-coated OSF pellet features a compact coating approximately 13.68 μm thick. SEM and AFM analyses revealed that the GO sheets displayed a monolayer configuration with a crinkled topography (about 0.91 nm). The EDS analysis confirmed that the core was primarily composed of Ca, K, P, O, N, and C elements. The hydroponic experiment results showed that a GO concentration of 80 mg/L significantly enhanced plant height, stem thickness, and root length in loose-leaf lettuce, while higher concentrations induced oxidative stress. In pot experiments, the OSF-GO composite effectively raised the soil pH from 5.38 to 6.41 and improved nutrient availability. OSF-GO composite functions effectively as both a soil conditioner and slow-release fertilizer (SRF), simultaneously remediating degraded soils and optimizing nutrient delivery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interplay between Nanomaterials and Plants)

33 pages, 4280 KB

Open AccessReview

Advances in Through-Hole Anodic Aluminum Oxide (AAO) Membrane and Its Applications: A Review

by Chin-An Ku and Chen-Kuei Chung

Nanomaterials 2025, 15(21), 1665; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15211665 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

Anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) is a well-known nanomaterial template formed under specific electrochemical conditions. By adjusting voltage, temperature, electrolyte type, and concentration, various microstructural modifications of AAO can be achieved within its hexagonally arranged pore array. To enable broader applications or enhance performance, post-treatment is often employed to further modify its nanostructure after anodization. Among these post-treatment techniques, AAO membrane detachment methods have been widely studied and can be categorized into traditional etching methods, voltage reduction methods, reverse bias voltage detachment methods, pulse voltage detachment methods, and further anodization techniques. Among various delamination processes, the mechanism is highly related to the selectivity of wet etching, as well as the Joule heating and stress generated during the process. Each of these detachment methods has its own advantages and drawbacks, including processing time, complexity, film integrity, and the toxicity of the solutions used. Consequently, researchers have devoted significant effort to optimizing and improving these techniques. Furthermore, through-hole AAO membranes have been applied in various fields, such as humidity sensors, nanomaterial synthesis, filtration, surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), and tribo-electrical nano-generators (TENG). In particular, the rough and porous structures formed at the bottom of AAO films significantly enhance sensor performance. Depending on specific application requirements, selecting or refining the appropriate processing method is crucial to achieving optimal results. As a versatile nanomaterial template, AAO itself is expected to play a key role in future advancements in environmental safety, bio-applications, energy technologies, and food safety. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research for Food Contact Materials and Sensors Based on Nanomaterials)

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61 pages, 15525 KB

Open AccessReview

Transesterification/Esterification Reaction Catalysed by Functional Hybrid MOFs for Efficient Biodiesel Production

by Luis P. Amador-Gómez, Delia Hernández-Romero, José M. Rivera-Villanueva, Sharon Rosete-Luna, Carlos A. Cruz-Cruz, Enrique Méndez-Bolaina, Elena de la C. Herrera-Cogco, Rafael Melo-González, Agileo Hernández-Gordillo and Raúl Colorado-Peralta

Reactions 2025, 6(4), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/reactions6040058 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

Biodiesel is an alternative, sustainable, renewable, and environmentally friendly energy source, which has generated interest from the scientific community due to its low toxicity, rapid biodegradability, and zero carbon footprint. Biodiesel is a biofuel produced by the transesterification of triglycerides or the esterification of free fatty acids (FFA). Both reactions require catalysts with numerous active sites (basic, acidic, bifunctional, or enzymatic) for efficient biodiesel production. On the other hand, since the late 1990s, metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) have emerged as a new class of porous materials and have been successfully used in various fields due to their multiple properties. For this reason, MOFs have been used as heterogeneous catalysts or as a platform for designing active sites, thus improving stability and reusability. This literature review presents a comprehensive analysis of using MOFs as heterogeneous catalysts or supports for biodiesel production. The optimal parameters for transesterification/esterification are detailed, such as the alcohol/feedstock molar ratio, catalyst amount, reaction time and temperature, conversion percentage, biodiesel yield, fatty acid and water content, etc. Additionally, novel methodologies such as ultrasound and microwave irradiation for obtaining MOF-based catalysts are described. It is important to note that most studies have shown biodiesel yields >90% and multiple reuse cycles with minimal activity loss. The bibliographic analysis was conducted using the American Chemical Society (ACS) Scifinder^® database, the Elsevier B.V. Scopus^® database, and the Clarivate Analytics Web of Science^® database, under the institutional license of the Universidad Veracruzana. Keywords were searched for each section, generally limiting the document type to “reviews” and “journals,” and the language to English, and published between 2000 and 2025. Full article

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17 pages, 4344 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ecosystem Services Value of the Grain for Green Program in China—A Case Study of Five Representative Provinces

by Mingju Jia, Tingyu Xu and Huijie Li

Forests 2025, 16(11), 1671; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111671 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

The Grain for Green Program (GGP), one of the world’s largest soil and water conservation initiatives, has been implemented in China as a representative payment for environmental service program. This study aims to evaluate the ecosystem service value (ESV) of forests established under the GGP in five representative provinces (Hebei, Liaoning, Hubei, Yunnan, Gansu), using a systematic methodology that integrates ecologic and economic dimensions for large-scale ecological projects. Between 1999 and 2013, a total of 717.67 × 10⁴ ha of forests were established. Barren land served as the primary land source, with ecological forest being the dominant forest type within the program. The ESV assessment encompassed key services, including water conservation, soil conservation, carbon sequestration, nutrient retention, air quality improvements, and biodiversity improvements. Based on our estimates, the total annual ESV of the afforested areas under GGP in the five representative provinces is 3604.99 × 10⁸ Yuan, with water conservation representing the largest share among all ecosystem services. Moreover, the cumulative ESV generated by these forests over the 14-year period exceeded the total payments made by the central government to farmers. To ensure the long-term success and sustainability of the GGP, a more equitable cost–benefit sharing mechanism is recommended. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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20 pages, 1276 KB

Open AccessArticle

Through the ARDL Approach: Is There a Nexus Between Renewable Energy Consumption, Economic Growth, and Foreign Direct Investment in the Moroccan Context?

by Yahya Fikri, Randa Talaat, Ahmad Shaheen, Ahmed Hassan and Abdullah Khataan

Sustainability 2025, 17(21), 9762; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17219762 (registering DOI) - 1 Nov 2025

Abstract

Empirical research has revealed conflicting associations between dependent and independent variables, with few studies tackling the dynamics in developing economies. This study investigates the effects of carbon dioxide emissions, renewable energy consumption (REC), foreign direct investment (FDI), government green capital spending (GGCS), and economic growth (EG) in Morocco, employing the Keynesian framework of economic growth. An autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) methodology was applied to assess both short- and long-term relationships among the model’s variables, using annual data from the World Development Indicators (WDI) database for the period 1993–2020. All ARDL variables were transformed into first differences to ensure stationarity. The bounds test confirmed a long-term equilibrium relationship between the dependent and independent variables. Diagnostic tests, including the White test, indicated no evidence of heteroscedasticity, and the Shapiro–Wilk test confirmed that residuals followed a normal distribution, validating model robustness. The model demonstrated overall stability across the study period with no structural breaks. The empirical findings suggest that both carbon dioxide emissions and renewable energy consumption exhibit positive trends, whereas GGCS demonstrates a significant short-run negative correlation with economic growth. However, the long-term coefficients were found to be statistically insignificant, suggesting that sustained policy effects may be attenuated by macroeconomic structural factors. Full article

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