Search Results (82)

While Korean Protestantism prides itself on being the driving force of the nation’s modernization, it has also been criticized for promoting kibok sinang (祈福信仰), or fortune-seeking faith, allegedly rooted in the superstitious tradition of shamanism. Drawing on Robert Merton’s notion of sociological ambivalence and the East Asian literary trope of kyerŭk (鷄肋; chicken rib), something ‘too bad to keep, yet too good to throw away,’ this article argues that the wavering between condemnation and silent retention of kibok sinang in Korean Protestantism is not a sign of inconsistency but its structural feature. Such strategic ambivalence, I argue, has given the churches a double advantage: periodic condemnation of kibok sinang demonstrates their modernizing respectability, while its silent accommodation appeals to the popular demand that sustains their growth. In doing so, it recasts the continuity-versus-discontinuity debate in the anthropology of Christianity, treating the two not as rival descriptions but as poles between which Korean Christians and their churches waver. I explore three historical episodes: the heresy charges against Cho Yong-gi and their reversal in the 1980s and ’90s; Yu Tong-sik’s ambivalent appraisal of shamanism in the 1960s; and Western missionaries’ critique and appropriation of Korean folk belief at the turn of the 20th century. These cases show that claims of religious continuity and rupture have long served as internal political instruments for negotiating the boundary between ‘religion’ and ‘superstition’ in modern Korea, one instance of a boundary contested across East Asia wherever religious traditions met. Full article

Based on three years of sustained personal observations and extensive on-site interviews, this study is the first to investigate the bird totem worship customs of the Dong ethnic minority in southeast Guizhou, China. The Dong-inhabited regions of southeast Guizhou possess a long-standing tradition of bird totem worship, which has permeated every aspect of local people’s daily life, serving as a living museum where ancient bird totem worship continues to thrive in the present day. Through investigation and research, we can clearly perceive that bird totem worship here is no longer merely evidence of primitive thinking as previously discussed in academic circles, nor is it an endangered intangible cultural heritage. Instead, it represents emotional resonance with a more modern spirit and open-ended identity construction. Faced with the era of the internet and new media, they have broken free from the constraints of totem concepts and taboos, instead embracing creative totem will, totem activities, totem behaviors, and intelligent totems, thereby endowing totems with new belief content and forms of expression. They have transcended the preconceived concepts and fixed thinking about totems in academic discourse, making it an important vehicle for maintaining community relations, strengthening ethnic solidarity, inheriting ethnic culture, and continuing local civilization. Through the contemporary reconstruction of collective behavior, the traffic empowerment of internet short videos, and complex functional transformations, they have constructed a brand-new totem value system in the context of the internet and new media era, organizing a multi-dimensional, comprehensive social ecological view and civilizational value system. It is precisely through this continuous evolution, expansion, and activation in response to changing times that totems have acquired sustained vitality and creativity, providing a vivid case study for the contemporary transformation and creative development of ancient totemic beliefs. This is also the significant importance of field investigation—it enables us to gain entirely new value cognition and different theoretical perspectives from the living site of totem practices. Full article

This article examines the ancestral belief system of fishermen in the Taihu Lake region through the worship of Xianfeng 先锋 (lit. “forerunner”). Existing studies of Taihu fishermen’s beliefs have primarily provided general descriptions of fishing communities, while the formation, transmission, social functions, and contemporary transformation of Xianfeng belief remain insufficiently examined. Drawing on textual analysis and ethnographic fieldwork, this article addresses this gap by exploring how Xianfeng belief has been sustained through the tradition of ritual specialists (Tangmen Taibao 堂门太保) and transformed from family-based ancestor worship into a community-wide protective practice through rituals such as incense pilgrimages and incense association rites. In doing so, it reconstructs the developmental trajectory of Xianfeng belief and provides a representative case for understanding the religious transformation of the rapidly disappearing fishing communities in the Taihu Lake region, while contributing to a broader discussion of religious change in China’s waterborne societies. Full article

This study examines the theological structure of Tengrism, understood here as a heuristic term for the broader Tengri-centered early Turkic belief system, its historical transformation, and its continuity in post-Islamic Turkic culture and folklore from an interdisciplinary perspective. Although the continuity of pre-Islamic Turkic beliefs in later Turkish folk culture has been noted in previous scholarship, the specific mechanisms through which Tengri-centered concepts survived as implicit theological structures within lived religion, folk belief, and Alevi-Bektashi ritual–poetic traditions have not been sufficiently systematized. The research argues that Tengrism should not be understood merely as an archaic remnant of belief but as a comprehensive theological paradigm shaping cosmology, political legitimacy, ethical order, and the perception of sacredness in early Turkic societies. In this context, epic and mythological texts such as the Orkhon Inscriptions, the Epic of Oghuz Khan, the Book of Dede Korkut, and the Epic of Manas constitute the primary textual sources of the study. The research is based on a qualitative design and employs phenomenological and hermeneutic approaches. The phenomenological perspective seeks to understand the theological principles of Tengrism and the perception of sacredness within their own cultural and symbolic universe, while hermeneutic analysis interprets the continuity of symbolic and mythological elements preserved in folkloric narratives. The findings indicate that the Tengri-centered and cosmologically structured character of early Turkic religiosity did not disappear after the adoption of Islam; rather, it persisted through folkloric narratives, popular beliefs, ritual practices, and the Alevi-Bektashi tradition. These findings demonstrate that Tengrism continues to function as a dynamic theological paradigm within Turkish cultural memory and popular religiosity. Full article

This study examines the hypothetical issue of the impact of ancient Egyptian beliefs on Africa as a whole. Several focal points are explored. These include (1). The situation of the discipline of folklore within allied academic specializations. (2). Culture diffusion within Africa, and (3). Spoken folk stories as the only field that integrates, in the space and time continuum, culture on the one hand, with its bearers/(society), on the other. (4). [Beside the] colonial past, the problem, is a result of a number of academic factors that include: (a). The establishment at universities of African studies departments that confine the continent to the sub-Saharan tier excluding Africa of the North; thus, folklore is isolated without a proper stage for studying it academically (see Dorson 1972); (b). The stereotyping concerning the capacity of scholars with unfamiliar names or recognized departmental membership as capable of dealing with theory or innovation, though some of their ideas are adopted by the famous without accrediting the source; (c). Ignoring the unfamiliarity for the family (especially under conditions of secrecy; cf. bias, ethnocentrism); and (d). Inadequacy of academic classroom pedagogy on the basics of verbal lore. Folklore in its original, mainly verbal branches, as represented by Stith Thompson’s monumental works on motif (1955–1958), and its predecessor by Antti Aarne on Type, (1910, 1928, 1961/1964), whose coverage, especially on Africa of the North, is seriously lacking in both the Type and Motif Indexes. The tracking of this line begins with recent calls for need for morphological studies of a South African tale (Dseagu [2001] 2021). An association among various regions of Africa with ancient Egypt concerning mythological contacts merits this investigation. Full article

The article introduces the Hylomorphism Inventory (HI), a new instrument designed to measure lay beliefs about the soul–body relationship that are congruent with the Aristotelian–Thomistic framework of hylomorphism. Although research on intuitive ontology has predominantly focused on dualist and monist models, the hylomorphic perspective—central to Catholic anthropology yet difficult to articulate in everyday cognition—remains largely unexplored. Drawing on research in intuitive anthropology, we conceptualize hylomorphic beliefs as endorsing the human person as a psychophysical unity in which the soul functions as the organizing form of the body. Using a theory-driven approach and expert evaluation, we developed an initial 10-item scale and tested it in a nationwide online sample of Polish adults (n = 407). Exploratory (EFA) and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA), supported by nonparametric Mokken scaling, converged on a primarily unidimensional 9-item solution with high internal consistency (α = 0.89, ordinal α = 0.91, ω ≈ 0.90). Validity analyses revealed that HI scores were strongly associated with beliefs emphasizing the integration of body, mind, and soul, but only weakly related to their mere endorsement as components. This pattern suggests that what distinguishes hylomorphism at the psychological level is not belief in the soul per se, but belief in the unity of the human person. The HI provides a parsimonious tool for differentiating lay anthropological models and enables empirical investigation of how hylomorphism-congruent beliefs relate to moral reasoning, spiritual practices, and broader psychological functioning. Full article

Under the dual pressures of urbanization and tourism development, the Historic Centre of Macao, as a World Cultural Heritage site, faces challenges including the inadequate transmission of cultural elements and the excessive commercialisation of tourism development. To systematically identify and safeguard its cultural characteristics, this study introduces the theory of cultural genes, constructing a dual-strand identification model encompassing both tangible and intangible cultural genes. This model integrates architectural function, structure, and ornamentation, alongside indigenous religions, arts, and folklore, thereby achieving a comprehensive extraction of cultural elements. Building upon this foundation, the study employed the AHP-fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method to quantitatively assess the degree of identification with various cultural elements, integrating perspectives from three distinct groups: tourists, residents, and third-party experts. The findings revealed significant disparities in cultural identification across these groups. For instance, residents demonstrated the highest level of identification with beliefs and folk customs, whilst tourists favoured more tangible aspects such as decorative elements and cuisine, exhibiting generally weaker identification with architectural structures. The findings demonstrate that this study, through the establishment of a systematic framework for identifying cultural genes and a multi-stakeholder evaluation system, has accurately discerned the characteristics of various cultural genes and the public’s level of identification with them. This provides a scientific basis for evidence-based, differentiated, and precise governance of the Historic Centre of Macao, offering significant reference value for the conservation and revitalisation of similar cultural heritage sites. Full article

During the mid-to-late Qing Dynasty, the folk-belief text Yuli constructed a systematic “underworld legal code” via its image–text system, distinct from traditional religious karma and religious law. This study focuses on Yuli’s core image system, exploring its unique legal characteristics and social governance functions through an interdisciplinary approach integrating religious studies, art history, and legal history. Yuli transforms real judicial symbols, such as government offices and prison gates, into underworld visual elements, establishing the core legal principles of “correspondence between crime and punishment” and “universal equality” while reflecting contemporary legal thought. The formation of this “underworld legal code” is closely linked to the creative practices of Qing Confucian scholars, who utilized folk beliefs as a vehicle to disseminate secular legal concepts and respond to social demands for behavioral norms. The Yuli thus became the primary behavioral norm for its grassroots audience, who, due to low literacy, could not understand the formal laws of the Qing Dynasty, and guided them to refrain from criminal acts. Yuli’s “underworld legal code” not only supplemented the national legal system but also reflected the pluralistic pattern of social governance in late imperial China, providing crucial empirical support for the theory of legal pluralism. This study deepens the understanding of the interactive relationship between folk beliefs and legal order in traditional China, and further clarifies the unique mode of grassroots social governance in the Qing Dynasty. Full article

Emerging in the early Ming dynasty 明 (1368–1644), Shanxi 山西 merchants pioneered large-scale regional trade in late imperial China. In the Ming and Qing 清 (1644–1011) dynasties, Shanxi merchants established over 500 merchant guildhalls throughout the country to worship gods, settle business issues, and stage theatrical performances. Many of them enshrined multiple patron gods, with Emperor Guan being the most common. Larger guildhalls usually featured one or more theatre stages. During major events and worship festivals, theatrical performances were staged to entertain guild members and the guilds’ patron god(s). Drawing on stele inscriptions about guild regulations and activities, this article demonstrates that Shanxi merchant guildhalls were religious sites with a commercial orientation. Although not part of the official sacrificial system, these guildhalls played a supplementary role in the worship of Emperor Guan. The flexibility of worship, the grand scale, and frequent performances made Shanxi merchant guildhalls ideal venues for the promotion of folk beliefs. Full article

Discussions of school safety management have often centered on physical and infrastructure-related risks and have not adequately addressed sociocultural risks emerging from South Korea’s gradual transition toward a multicultural and multireligious society. To address this gap, we pose two interrelated research questions: (1) In what ways do these sociocultural risks present challenges that existing frameworks do not cover? (2) What curriculum framework can be developed to foster religious literacy as a sustainable approach to sociocultural risk reduction? In response, we first use the term sociocultural risk to identify a distinct dimension within the landscape of school safety policy and propose religious literacy education as a response to these emerging challenges. Adapting Joseph Schwab’s practical approach to curriculum development, particularly through deliberation on the interactions among his four commonplaces of education, we then design Exploring Korean Religions, a general education course that complements a curriculum for teaching about world religions. By examining the historical development of religious traditions in Korea (e.g., Buddhism, Confucianism, Korean folk beliefs, and Christianity) and their contemporary relevance, this course enables Korean students to reflect on the religious foundations of their own culture while helping students from diverse backgrounds develop a deeper understanding of the religious and cultural landscape of Korean society. Through this educational approach, this study contributes a distinct perspective on addressing sociocultural dimensions of safety challenges by demonstrating the importance of religious education in fostering religious literacy and interreligious understanding in multicultural South Korea and beyond. Full article

The scientific activity and outputs of the neurosciences are fascinating and, for the most part, uncontroversial. However, there have been sustained claims that neuroscientific findings represent a powerful challenge to historic, orthodox Christian teaching concerning human ontology. While philosophers had long debated the “mind/brain” problem, the rise of “eliminative materialism” (in the specific form of “neurophilosophy”) in the last quarter of the 20th century evoked various responses to the proposition that a mature neuroscience would forever banish familiar “folk science” entities like beliefs and desires as well as immaterial souls or minds. These would all be shown to play no role in a thoroughly materialistic, mature, neuroscientific understanding of ourselves. One aspect of the response to such claims within Christian scholarship was a turn to non-reductive physicalism and theological monism prompting a reassessment of biblical teaching concerning human ontology, seeking a position that would be consistent both with neuroscience (or its alleged implications) and Christian teaching. The aim of this paper is to review neuroscientific, philosophical and theological developments in order to establish where theological anthropology currently stands. In part this requires an assessment of contemporary neuroscience (including the subfield of “consciousness studies”) because while the science continues to generate intriguing hypotheses and data, it has fallen some way short of the eliminative materialists’ hopes of forty years ago. Additionally, important methodological criticisms of the science have emerged concerning such issues as reproducibility and participant selection. This may have contributed to the twenty-first century resurgence of interest in the sort of dualism long a key component of theological orthodoxy, as well as highlighting the need for a reassertion of theological values, methods and perspectives. The apparent non-elimination of theology indicates a need to rebalance theological and neuroscientific perspectives in developing our understanding of the person. Full article

The Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) was a transformative era for Baojuan (寶卷, “precious scrolls”), a traditional genre of Chinese folk religious literature, which evolved from its Yuan origins to achieve widespread prominence. Luo Qing’s Wubu liuce (五部六冊, “Five Books in Six Volumes”) during the Zhengde reign (1506–1521) marked a pivotal moment, enabling the systematic dissemination of his teachings among diverse social strata and profoundly shaping popular religious beliefs. The Ming Baojuan texts, bridging the developments between the Yuan and Qing periods, offer rich and dispersed data suitable for digital visualization. Employing digital humanities tools such as 3D radar charts and GIS visualization, this study maps the spatial distribution and influence of Baojuan in Ming China. The findings reveal that transportation networks and regional economic prosperity played a crucial role in driving its dissemination, with southern regions–particularly the Wu-Yue region (referring to the historical cultural area encompassing southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang, core parts of Ming Jiangnan)–showing high density, reflecting the economic and cultural vitality of Ming Jiangnan. The research further demonstrates that the flourishing of Baojuan publication and dissemination during the Ming period was sustained not only by economic and cultural forces but also by the ruling elite’s patronage, a form of discursive strategies that functioned as a mechanism of sectarian legitimation, thereby underscoring the interdependence of regional prosperity, elite patronage, and religious transmission. Full article

This study examines the traditional villages of the Tujia and Miao ethnic groups in Xiangxi Prefecture, western Hunan, and clarifies their spatial distribution and residential cultures through ArcGIS-based spatial analysis combined with extensive field investigation. On the basis of a systematic comparative framework, it explores differences in village patterns, architectural forms, and folk belief systems between the two groups. The results indicate that (1) in terms of spatial distribution, Miao villages are mainly located to the south of the Wuling Mountains, while Tujia villages are concentrated to the north, with the mountainous ranges of Baojing and Guzhang counties forming a clear transitional belt; (2) regarding village layout, Miao villages are generally clustered with “mountain-backed and water-adjacent”, whereas Tujia villages tend to adopt a more dispersed and defensive pattern than “mountain-anchored and water-distanced”; (3) in dwelling form, both groups share similar basic spatial organization, yet Miao dwellings exhibit greater diversity in construction materials, including timber, stone, and rammed earth; (4) in terms of belief and ritual, distinct folk practices and symbolic systems are embedded in the spatial organization and decorative features of each group’s villages. These findings deepen the understanding of cultural diversity among ethnic minorities in western Hunan and provide a theoretical basis for authenticity-oriented conservation and the sustainable development of traditional villages in ethnic regions. Full article

This paper focuses on the image evolution of Shi Daoji (Ji Gong), a monk of the Southern Song Dynasty, and explores its important significance in the history of Chinese Buddhism. The historical authenticity of Dao Ji was once questioned, but the Epitaph written by Jujian, provides key evidence for his existence. It records Dao Ji’s origin, ordination, personality, and behavioral characteristics, establishing the prototype for later Ji Gong legends. Initially, Dao Ji existed as an “unconventional monk” with eccentric behaviors yet possessing spiritual legitimacy. During the Song-Yuan period, huaben (vernacular tales) and recorded sayings shaped him into a “San Sheng” (Uninhibited Sage), which conformed to the characteristics of Buddhism’s sinicization and gained widespread acceptance among the people. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, Dao Ji was further recognized as an “Arhat Yingzhen” (a realized Arhat), and his Chan lineage was gradually clarified in lamp records, with his status continuously elevated. The evolution of Dao Ji’s image reflects the process of Buddhism’s secularization and sinicization. It not only embodies the influence of folk beliefs on orthodox Buddhism but also reveals that Buddhism needs to integrate into people’s lives to complete its localization, providing a unique perspective for understanding the development of Chinese Buddhism. Full article

Criminal laws and their deserts-based punishments, particularly in Anglo-American systems, remain grounded in folk psychology assumptions about free will, willpower, and agency. Yet advances in neuropsychiatry, neuromicrobiology, behavioral genetics, multi-omics, and exposome sciences, are revealing how here-and-now decisions are profoundly shaped by antecedent factors. This transdisciplinary evidence increasingly undermines the folk psychology model: some argue it leaves “not a single crack of daylight to shoehorn in free will”, while others suggest the evidence at least reveals far greater constraints on agency than currently acknowledged. Historically, courts and corrections have marginalized brain and behavior sciences, often invoking prescientific notions of monsters and wickedness to explain harmful behavior—encouraging anti-science sentiment and protecting normative assumptions. Earlier disciplinary silos, such as isolated neuroscience or single-gene claims, did little to challenge the system. But today’s integrated sciences—from microbiology and toxicology to nutrition and traumatology, powered by omics and machine learning—pose a threat to the folk psychology fulcrum. Resistance to change is well known in criminal justice, but the accelerating pace of biopsychosocial science makes it unlikely that traditional assumptions will endure. In response to modern science, emergent concepts of reform have been presented. Here, we review the public health quarantine model, an emergent concept that aligns criminal justice with public health principles. The model recognizes human behavior as emergent from complex biological, social, and environmental determinants. It turns away from retribution, while seeking accountability in a way that supports healing and prevention. Full article