Search Results (48)

In the face of increasingly complex urban challenges, a critical question arises: can urban ecosystems maintain resilience, vitality, and sustainability when confronted with external threats and pressures? Taking Kunming—a plateau-mountainous city in China—as a case study, this research constructs an urban ecosystem resilience (UER) assessment model based on the DPSIR (Driving forces, Pressures, States, Impacts, and Responses) framework. A total of 25 indicators were selected via questionnaire surveys, covering five dimensions: driving forces such as natural population growth, annual GDP growth, urbanization level, urban population density, and resident consumption price growth; pressures including per capita farmland, per capita urban construction land, land reclamation and cultivation rate, proportion of natural disaster-stricken areas, and unit GDP energy consumption; states measured by Evenness Index (EI), Shannon Diversity Index (SHDI), Aggregation Index (AI), Interspersion and Juxtaposition Index (IJI), Landscape Shape Index (LSI), and Normalized Vegetation Index (NDVI); impacts involving per capita GDP, economic density, per capita disposable income growth, per capita green space area, and per capita water resources; and responses including proportion of natural reserve areas, proportion of environmental protection investment to GDP, overall utilization of industrial solid waste, and afforestation area. Based on remote sensing and other data, indicator values were calculated for 2006, 2011, and 2016. The entire-array polygon indicator method was used to visualize indicator interactions and derive composite resilience index values, all of which remained below 0.25—indicating a persistent low-resilience state, marked by sustained economic growth, frequent natural disasters, and declining ecological self-recovery capacity. Forecasting results suggest that, under current development trajectories, Kunming’s UER will remain low over the next decade. This study is the first to integrate the DPSIR framework, entire-array polygon indicator method, and Grey System Forecasting Model into the evaluation and prediction of urban ecosystem resilience in plateau-mountainous cities. The findings highlight the ecosystem’s inherent capacities for self-organization, adaptation, learning, and innovation and reveal its nested, multi-scalar resilience structure. The DPSIR-based framework not only reflects the complex human–nature interactions in urban systems but also identifies key drivers and enables the prediction of future resilience patterns—providing valuable insights for sustainable urban development. Full article

Southwest China’s karst region represents a global hotspot for ecological restoration, with natural succession on abandoned farmland emerging as a pivotal mechanism under recent land-use transitions. Despite its ecological significance, empirical data remain scarce regarding tree growth characteristics in this fragile ecosystem. This seven-year study (2018–2024) at Puding Karst Ecosystem Research Station quantified the spatiotemporal patterns of tree growth through monthly diameter at breast height (DBH) measurements for dominant species, coupled with microhabitat characterization (rock exposure, competition indices, and canopy architecture). Key findings revealed that the mean annual DBH increment was 5.74 mm/a, while biomass accumulation averaged 9.38 kg/a; growing-season drought duration significantly modulated interannual growth variation; and microhabitat heterogeneity and tree size significantly influenced the spatial variance of tree growth. These results substantiate natural succession as an effective carbon sequestration strategy, particularly in nutrient-depleted karst terrains. We advocate for the policy prioritization of passive restoration over active afforestation in marginal croplands. Full article

Ecological restoration projects in the Loess Plateau have significantly altered the underlying surface, which has profoundly affected the regional water cycle. In the context of the ongoing climate change, quantitatively identifying the factors influencing runoff changes and simulating runoff responses to various land management policies are essential for achieving sustainable development in arid/semi-arid regions. Daily hydrological and meteorological data from 1981 to 2020 along with the SWAT model were employed to analyze the attribution of runoff changes in the Yanhe River basin and simulate runoff responses under different climate and land-use scenarios. The results show the following: (1) the improvement of the underlying surface conditions appeared to be the leading factor of runoff retention, with a contribution of 81.21%, while the influence of climate change on runoff was minimal; (2) woodland generally exhibited superior performance in retaining runoff compared to grassland under diverse climate conditions; (3) converting farmland on slopes between 15 and 25 degrees into woodland and farmland on slopes exceeding 25 degrees into grassland demonstrated to be a more effective approach to controlling soil erosion; (4) it is recommended that a balance between water resource utilization and the extent of afforestation should be considered concurrently in future ecological restoration. Full article

Afforestation has been considered to be the cost-effective way to sequestrate carbon (C) dioxide from the atmosphere in the soils, while concurrent responses of soil inorganic C (SIC) and soil organic C (SOC), and their turnover are still not well-defined. During the C cycle, inorganic C is enriched in heavy isotopes (¹³C), while organic C, due to photosynthetic fractionation, is enriched in light isotopes (¹²C). This leads to distinct C isotope fractionation in terrestrial ecosystems. In this study, 72 paired soils (0–20 cm) from poplar shelterbelts and adjacent farmland sites were collected in six regions (Zhaozhou, Fuyu, Dumeng, Zhaodong, Lanling, and Mingshui) of northeastern China. Five soil fractions of dissolved organic C (DOC), particulate organic matter (POM), sand and stable aggregates (S + A), silt and clay (S + C), and resistant SOC (rSOC) and bulk soils were used in C content assay and the natural δ¹³C determination. The results showed that, compared with SOC, poplar shelterbelts resulted in SIC accrual in the soils across all six sites; however, only half of the six sites showed SOC accrual, indicating an ambiguous effect of afforestation on SOC. The natural δ¹³C method could identify the SOC turnover owing to the C isotopic discrimination. The δ¹³C–SOC-derived turnover ratio was 23%. When SIC was included in the δ¹³C measurement, bulk soils and four soil fractions (S + C, S + A, rSOC, DOC) showed a 2%–10% lower turnover percentage than the δ¹³C–SOC-derived turnover ratios. The SIC inclusion resulted in the dependency of δ¹³C–TC (TC = SIC + SOC) values on SOC (negative, R²: 0.21–0.44) and SIC content (positive, R²: 0.39–0.63). By contrast, when SIC was excluded, the δ¹³C–SOC values were independent of them (R² < 0.18). Redundancy ordination analysis manifested that more SOC in the soils, together with more POM and farming uses would be accompanied with the lower δ¹³C values. Moreover, forest characteristics (e.g., age and density) and farmland backgrounds (e.g., crop history and distance between forest and farmland) could explain differences in δ¹³C-related features. Our results highlighted that SIC in natural δ¹³C determination underestimated the C turnover ratio in general. However, SIC storage should be included in the soil C sequestration evaluation owing to a general SIC accrual pattern across regions when compared with those of SOC. Full article

Simulating and predicting carbon storage under different development scenarios is crucial for formulating effective carbon management strategies and achieving carbon neutrality goals. However, studies that focus on specific regions and incorporate local policy context require further investigation. Taking Fujian Province as a case study, this research developed four policy-driven scenarios—natural development, farmland protection, urban development, and ecological protection—based on local policy frameworks. Using the PLUS (Patch-generating Land Use Simulation) and InVEST (Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs) models, the study simulated and predicted the carbon storage dynamics under each scenario. The results show that carbon storage declined from 1995 to 2020, mainly due to the conversion of forests and agricultural land into construction areas. The ecological protection scenario demonstrated the highest potential for carbon storage recovery, projecting an increase to 2.02 billion tons by 2030, driven by afforestation and conservation initiatives. Conversely, the urban development scenario posed the greatest risks, leading to substantial losses. Key conservation areas, including 12 priority districts, were identified in the western and northwestern regions, while coastal urban areas, comprising 31 vulnerable districts, face significant carbon storage losses. These findings emphasize the need for balanced land use policies that prioritize both urban development and ecological protection to achieve sustainable carbon management. Full article

Achieving sustainable rural development in China requires effectively integrating agricultural growth with ecological balance. However, existing research on the coordination between agricultural economy and ecosystems has often focused on isolated aspects, such as economic growth or ecological sustainability, or has been limited to specific provinces or regions, lacking a comprehensive nationwide analysis. To address this gap, this study uses spatial data from 31 provincial-level regions in China from 2008 to 2022, developing a multidimensional framework that encompasses economic input, structure, efficiency, benefits, vitality, ecological conditions, and pressure. Using multi-factor econometric methods, we comprehensively evaluate the coordination between China’s agricultural economy and ecosystems, revealing regional disparities and spatiotemporal variations in their coupling coordination, and analyzing the barriers affecting this coordination. Our findings show that: First, coupling coordination has steadily improved, narrowing regional disparities. Second, regional differences are primarily driven by variations between the eastern, central, and western regions, with structural disparities shifting from interregional to hyper-variable density. Third, development exhibits a “club convergence” pattern, where upward transitions are difficult and downward mobility is a risk. Key barriers include farmland scale, land efficiency, afforestation area, and soil erosion control. Based on these findings, we recommend regional development strategies, dynamic monitoring mechanisms, optimized land use, and enhanced ecological protection. This study provides valuable insights for policymakers and practitioners to promote the coordinated and sustainable development of agricultural economies and ecosystems in China. Full article

On the Loess Plateau, vast farmlands have suffered from severe land degradation and soil erosion. Afforestation and natural vegetation restoration are two main methods for ecological restoration on the degraded farmland in the last few decades. Previous studies have mainly investigated the effects of the two methods on soil organic carbon (SOC). However, few studies have focused on the influence of the two methods on soil inorganic carbon (SIC), which is the fundamental component of the local soil carbon pool. On the Loess Plateau, we measured SOC and SIC stocks, and the stable carbon isotope values of SOC and SIC (δ¹³C-SOC and δ¹³C-SIC) within 0–100 cm depth in an artificial forestland (Robinia pseudoacacia, 27 years) and a neighboring abandoned farmland (Poa annua and Bothriochloa ischaemum, 27 years). The results showed that SOC and SIC stocks at 0–100 cm in forestland were 23.43 Mg ha⁻¹ and 16.89 Mg ha⁻¹ higher than the abandoned farmland, respectively. The δ¹³C-SOC in topsoil was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than the subsoil in both lands. The δ¹³C-SIC in forestland was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than in abandoned farmland. The results indicated that afforestation is more suitable to conserve soil carbon than natural vegetation restoration on degraded farmland on the Loess Plateau. The forestland generated more pedogenic inorganic carbon than the abandoned farmland causing the difference in SIC stock between the two lands. Our findings highlight the importance of SIC, and the SIC may be more important than SOC in sequestrating soil carbon following vegetation restoration on the Loess Plateau. Full article

Afforestation (AF) in farmland has been widely used as an alternative and sustainable land-use practice to address socioeconomic and environmental challenges. The aim of this study is to estimate farmers’ willingness to accept (WTA) compensation and land, both of which are equally significant for policymakers to ensure the effective implementation of AF and achieve desired outcomes. This topic has not been sufficiently explored in previous research. This study focused on areas characterized by insecure farming conditions, backward economies, and fragile landscapes, where farmers are generally unfamiliar with AF or compensation for ecosystem services under payment for ecosystem services programs. It assessed their attitudes towards the WTA AF, compensation, and land as an alternative practice, which remains under-researched. This is crucial for designing effective AF programs in the future to improve livelihood and enhance the quantity and quality of the environment. This study used the contingent valuation method to estimate the minimum WTA compensation and maximum land for the forgone loss and alternative land-use practices. A questionnaire survey was conducted in Hupsekot municipality, Nepal, with 232 farmer households. The ordinal logistic regression model was used to analyze influencing factors of WTA compensation and land. The result showed that farmers’ average WTA compensation was NPR 1268.67 (USD 9.76)/Kattha/year, with 2.64 Kattha land available for AF. The factors, including socioeconomic characters and attitudes toward the environmental situation and forests, significantly influenced WTA values and provided potential target factors to achieve maximum AF land within a lower budget. Full article

The selection of suitable tree species and the reasonable allocation of planting areas are important measures for improving soil quality. To evaluate the soil quality (SQ) and its driving factors of Pinus tabuliformis forests in loess hilly areas where forestry ecological projects, such as returning farmland to forest (grass), have been implemented, this study selected P. tabuliformis forests with different restoration years (1a, 6a, 11a, 18a, and 22a) in Wuqi County and used grassland before afforestation (PRG) and abandoned grassland (AG) with 22 years as controls. In this study, soil physicochemical indices, soil fauna indices, and herbaceous plant indices obtained via principal component analysis were used to establish a soil quality evaluation model via the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method to comprehensively evaluate SQ. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to identify the key factors affecting the SQ of P. tabuliformis forests. The goal was to create a model that could effectively evaluate the SQ while considering all relevant factors. The findings of the study showed that: (1) by performing a principal component analysis on the 27 indicator factors, the first six principal components had eigenvalues > 1, and the cumulative contribution rate was 90.028%, effectively encompassing the information of the original variables. (2) The highest soil quality index (SQI) was 0.592 (p < 0.05) in the restored 6a P. tabuliformis forest, whereas the lowest SQI was 0.323 in the restored 1a P. tabuliformis forest. As the number of years of restoration increased, the SQ of the P. tabuliformis plantation forest progressively approached that of the long-term abandoned grassland, with only a 1.8% difference after 22 years of restoration. The SQI of the P. tabuliformis woodland in restored 6a was 83% higher than that of 1a, and following 6a of restoration, the SQI showed a decreasing trend with increasing restoration years. Nevertheless, the SQI increased by >52% compared with the early stage of restoration (1a) and by 31% compared with the grassland before afforestation (PRG). (3) SEM revealed that the SQ of P. tabuliformis forest land was mainly driven by soil physical and herbaceous plant indicators, and soil fauna indicators and restoration years had a negative effect on the evolution of SQ in P. tabuliformis forests. The driving factors of P. tabuliformis forests of different restoration years were different, and with the increase in restoration years, the effects of soil fauna and herbaceous plant indicators on the SQ of P. tabuliformis plantation forests showed an overall upward trend. Full article

Over the last few years, new land use planning instruments to reduce the negative consequences of recent land use/cover changes (farmland abandonment, wildfires) have been proposed in Galicia (northwest Spain). Understanding the complex relationship between biophysical constraints, socioeconomic drivers and land use/cover changes is paramount for their successful implementation. In this work, we present an analysis of recent (2005–2017) land use/cover changes in the region, along with a classification of municipalities in homogeneous groups with different patterns of land use and land use change. We then characterize those groups regarding the demographic and employment structure, the economic performance, the characteristics of the primary sector, the land ownership structure and the relative importance of recent wildfire events and the biophysical suitability for the main productions of the primary sector in the region. The results allowed us to identify four different groups of municipalities which are clearly separated by specific patterns of land use (an area where most of the population lives, an area devoted to forest production, another for farming production and a final one dominated by semi-natural covers). These four areas followed a gradient of decreasing levels of population density and economic activity. While land use patterns in different areas could be explained largely by biophysical suitability, the fragmentation of land ownership emerged as a relevant factor, which can explain the greater presence of farmland abandonment—and, therefore, higher wildfire risk—in certain areas. These results offer relevant guidelines for the successful implementation of the new land use planning instruments in the region. Full article

This study investigates the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of soil moisture on slopes of China’s northeastern black soil region, focusing on the effects of terrain adjustment and vegetation. Soil moisture dynamics in the 0–60 cm soil layer were measured at 10 cm intervals using the TRIME-PICO64 TDR^® device on slopes with similar gradients representing three land use types: transverse ridge tillage (TRT) farmland, terraced fields (TFs) farmland, and pure forest woodland (WL). The results indicate significant variations in soil moisture content and water storage across different land use types in the order of TF > TRT > WL. The study further identified that soil bulk density, porosity, and water-holding indicators were in the order of WL > TF > TRT, inconsistent with the soil moisture results, indicating that soil quality cannot be the sole reason for the differences in moisture. The moisture differences between farmland types (TRT and TF) and WL are substantial, especially during the rainy season. In the rainy season (0–60 cm) and the dry season (30–60 cm), significant differences in moisture content are observed (p < 0.05). Significant differences in moisture content between farmland types are found at 0–40 cm during the rainy season and at 0–10 cm during the dry season. In the rainy season, soil moisture for TRT and TFs first decreases from 26.76% and 30.85% to 22.44% and 25.38%, then slightly increases to 27.01% and 27.07% along the slope. Meanwhile, WL displays the opposite pattern on upper, relatively steep slopes, with soil moisture increasing from 16.66% to 17.81%, and exhibits a pattern of change similar to TRT and TFs on lower, gentler slopes. TFs consistently show higher soil moisture and water storage at all slope positions than TRT and WL. TFs improve soil quality, reduce erosion and sedimentation, and shift the lowest soil moisture content to a lower slope position. During the dry season, soil moisture differences between slope positions for TRT and WL were small. In general, terracing can effectively modulate moisture distribution along slopes, increasing moisture by an average of 0.26~12.43%, while afforestation, despite improving soil quality, leads to an 18.14~31.13% reduction in soil moisture content, with the impact being particularly significant during the rainy season. These findings provide important insights for optimizing land use and ecological construction, including keeping the balance between soil and water conservation, especially for sub-humid slope terrain areas. Full article

Many studies have investigated how soil water availability in shallow soil affects forest transpiration, but how deep soil water status (below 1 m depth) alters tree water use remains poorly understood. To improve our understanding of how deep soil water changes tree transpiration dynamics, we measured soil water content (SWC) in more than 20 m depths, the radial sap flow profile and the leaf area index (LAI) in the 2017 growing season in 9-, 12-, 16-, 19- and 23-year-old afforested apple (Rosaceae) trees on the Chinese Loess Plateau. SWC was also measured in long-term cultivated farmland to derive SWC before afforestation. The results showed that there was no statistical difference in SWC in shallow soil among orchards (p > 0.05), while SWC in deep soil reduced rapidly with increasing tree age. The average SWC at 1–20 m decreased from 0.27 ± 0.02 cm³ cm⁻³ in farmland to 0.21 ± 0.03 cm³ cm⁻³ in the 23-year-old orchard. Moreover, water storage in deep soil decreased by 139 mm yr⁻¹ between the 9- and 12-year-old stands, 105 mm yr⁻¹ between the 12- and 16-year-old stands, 44 mm yr⁻¹ between the 16- and 19-year-old stands, and 9 mm yr⁻¹ from the 19- to 23-year-old stands, indicating that gradually decreased SWC in deep soil has restricted tree water use. Due to the changes in SWC, growing-season transpiration and the LAI peaked in the 16-year-old orchard and then decreased with increasing stand age. Growing-season transpiration in the 23-year-old orchard was only 77% of that in the 16-year stands, despite the older trees having larger diameters at the breast height. Our results suggest that soil water availability in deep soil plays an important role in regulating trees’ transpiration. Full article

Non-grain agricultural land use (NGALU) could be an alternative to payments for ecosystem services (PES) to achieve ecosystem benefits, given their joint contribution to forest transition. Unraveling the correlation between PES and NGALU can enhance cost-effective decisions. While farmland abandonment and non-grain cash crops (NGCCs) plantation are two main manifestations of NGALU, previous studies have primarily assessed the effects of PES on farmland abandonment. Little is known about the effects of PES on NGCC planting. This study evaluated the effects of China’s two nationwide PES programs (i.e., the Grain to Green Program, GTGP, and the Ecological Welfare Forest Program, EWFP) on NGALU in the Black River Basin of Shaanxi province. The study found a wide adoption of NGALU, with 52% of households adopting NGALU. The total area of NGALU is more than half of the afforested area through the GTGP. A quarter of the NGALU area is abandoned farmland, while the remaining NGALU area is planted with NGCCs. The two PES programs did not have effects on NGCC planting, but reduced farmland abandonment. Engagement in labor migration and local non-farm employment increased NGALU, while livestock breeding and farmland area reduced NGALU. Furthermore, the large area and unfavorable geographical conditions of farmland parcels promoted NGALU. These results highlight the important implications of leveraging NGALU to boost ecological gains from conservation investments. Full article

The Grain for Green (GfG) program is an afforestation project created by the Chinese Government to protect the environment. Farmers who participate in GfG return farmland to forest. Losing arable land means losing an income source, so farmers have to reorient their livelihood strategies, leading to potential changes in the gender division of labor. To assess gender differences in the impact of policies, we use indicators from the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), which measures the status of women relative to that of men. Using sex-disaggregated data from farmers in mountainous areas of northeast China and applying the inverse probability weighted regression adjustment (IPWRA) estimator, we found that the status of men and women had increased with GfG participation, but women’s status had improved more than men’s. However, this was not because of their smooth participation in the program, but because of its challenges. Their decision-making skills improved unexpectedly due to pressure to protect their interests. Rural women worried about their families’ livelihoods, so they tried to improve their family welfare and diversified their income sources. In this process, women had more interactions with outside communities. Our results underline the strong need to continuously monitor the gender impacts of environmental policies. Full article

The Chinese Loess Plateau has undertaken a large-scale “Grain for Green” project since 1999. Understanding how reforestation affects soil moisture is crucial for ecological construction and the region’s revegetation. In this study, soil sensors were installed to monitor the soil moisture content (SMC) and soil desiccation intensity in a 0–200 cm soil profile online during the growing season, with farmland as a control and Robinia (R.) pseudoacacia L., Pinus (P.) tabulaeformis Carr., Populus (P.) alba L., and Ulmus (U.) pumila L. were selected. The results showed that the SMC increased with soil depth, and the soil moisture storage (SMS) in the 0–200 cm soil profile was ranked as R. pseudoacacia L. (424.3 mm) < farmland (479.8 mm) < U. pumila L. (569.8 mm) < P. alba L. (583.9 mm) < P. tabulaeformis Carr. (589.8 mm). Secondly, the percentages of inefficient water and gravimetric water in soil moisture were ranked as R. pseudoacacia L. (63%) > farmland (49%) > U. pumila L. (43%) > P. alba L. (17%) > P. tabulaeformis Carr. (11%). The soil desiccation intensity of artificial forests was heavy in June, light in April and July, and no desiccation in the other months. Moderate desiccation was discovered in the 0–40 cm soil layer and mild desiccation occurred in the 40–60 cm soil layer. Additionally, the representative soil layer for SMS in farmland for P. tabulaeformis Carr., U. pumila L., and R. pseudoacacia L. was the 90 cm soil layer, and the SMS representative soil layer for P. alba L. was the 70 cm soil layer. In brief, an SMS deficit occurred after the conversion of the farmland to R. pseudoacacia L., but there was an SMS surplus after the conversion of the farmland to P. alba L., U. pumila L., and P. tabulaeformis Carr. This suggests that the artificial forest species could be optimized by introducing P. tabulaeformis Carr. instead of R. pseudoacacia L., and the degradation of R. pseudoacacia L. could be suppressed by the application of a nitrogen fertilizer. Our research demonstrated that soil moisture depletion patterns were closely related to artificial forest species, and attention should be paid to the vegetation restoration and maintenance of afforestation achievements in water-constrained arid regions in the future. Full article