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Keywords = epoxidized oil

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20 pages, 10391 KiB  
Article
Sustainable Substitution of Petroleum-Based Processing Oils with Soybean-Derived Alternatives in Styrene–Butadiene Rubber: Effects on Processing Behavior and Mechanical Properties
by Yang-Wei Lin, Tsung-Yi Chen, Chen-Yu Chueh, Yi-Ting Chen, Tsunghsueh Wu and Hsi-Ming Hsieh
Polymers 2025, 17(15), 2129; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17152129 - 1 Aug 2025
Viewed by 289
Abstract
This study evaluates the replacement of petroleum-based naphthenic oil with four types of soybean-derived alternatives—virgin soybean oil (SBO), epoxidized SBO (ESBO), expired SBO, and recycled SBO—in styrene–butadiene rubber (SBR) composites. The materials were tested in both staining rubber (SR) and non-staining rubber (NSR) [...] Read more.
This study evaluates the replacement of petroleum-based naphthenic oil with four types of soybean-derived alternatives—virgin soybean oil (SBO), epoxidized SBO (ESBO), expired SBO, and recycled SBO—in styrene–butadiene rubber (SBR) composites. The materials were tested in both staining rubber (SR) and non-staining rubber (NSR) systems to assess processing characteristics, mechanical performance, and environmental durability. Among the alternatives, SBO demonstrated the best overall performance, improving processability and tensile strength by over 10%, while ESBO enhanced ozone resistance by 35% due to its epoxide functionality. Expired and recycled SBOs maintained essential mechanical properties within 90% of virgin SBO values. The full replacement of CH450 with SBO in tire prototypes resulted in burst strength exceeding 1000 kPa and stable appearance after 5000 km of road testing. To validate industrial relevance, the developed green tire was exhibited at the 2025 Taipei International Cycle Show, attracting interest from international buyers and stakeholders for its eco-friendly composition and carbon footprint reduction potential, thereby demonstrating both technical feasibility and commercial viability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Polymers and Their Composites for Sustainable Development)
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18 pages, 4169 KiB  
Article
Sustainable Thermoelectric Composites: A Study of Bi2Te3-Filled Biobased Resin
by Luca Ferretti, Pietro Russo, Jessica Passaro, Francesca Nanni, Saverio D’Ascoli, Francesco Fabbrocino and Mario Bragaglia
Materials 2025, 18(15), 3453; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18153453 - 23 Jul 2025
Viewed by 302
Abstract
In this work, bio-based thermoelectric composites were developed using acrylated epoxidized soybean oil (AESO) as the polymer matrix and bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3) as the thermoelectric filler. The materials were formulated for both UV-curing and thermal-curing processes, with a focus [...] Read more.
In this work, bio-based thermoelectric composites were developed using acrylated epoxidized soybean oil (AESO) as the polymer matrix and bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3) as the thermoelectric filler. The materials were formulated for both UV-curing and thermal-curing processes, with a focus on Digital Light Processing (DLP) 3D printing. Although UV curing proved ineffective at high filler concentrations due to the light opacity of Bi2Te3, thermal curing enabled the fabrication of stable, homogeneously dispersed composites. The samples were thoroughly characterized through rheology, FTIR, TGA, XRD, SEM, and density measurements. Thermoelectric performance was assessed under a 70 °C temperature gradient, with Seebeck coefficients reaching up to 51 µV/K. Accelerated chemical degradation studies in basic media confirmed the degradability of the matrix. The results demonstrate the feasibility of combining additive manufacturing with sustainable materials for low-power thermoelectric energy harvesting applications. Full article
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34 pages, 3317 KiB  
Review
A Systematic Review of Epoxidation Methods and Mechanical Properties of Sustainable Bio-Based Epoxy Resins
by Manuel Álvarez, Anthony Reilly, Obey Suleyman and Caleb Griffin
Polymers 2025, 17(14), 1956; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17141956 - 17 Jul 2025
Viewed by 542
Abstract
There has been a growing interest in polymer-based materials in recent years, and current research is focused on reducing fossil-derived epoxy compounds. This review examines the potential of epoxidised vegetable oils (EVOs) as sustainable alternatives to these systems. Epoxidation processes have been systematically [...] Read more.
There has been a growing interest in polymer-based materials in recent years, and current research is focused on reducing fossil-derived epoxy compounds. This review examines the potential of epoxidised vegetable oils (EVOs) as sustainable alternatives to these systems. Epoxidation processes have been systematically analysed and their influence on chemical, thermal, and mechanical properties has been assessed. Results indicate that basic, low-toxicity epoxidation methods resulted in resins with comparable performance to those obtained through more complex common/commercial procedures. In total, 5–7% oxirane oxygen content (OOC) was found to be optimal to achieve a balanced crosslink density, thus enhancing tensile strength. Furthermore, mechanical properties have been insufficiently studied, as less than half of the studies were conducted at least tensile or flexural strength. Reinforcement strategies were also explored, with nano-reinforcing carbon nanotubes (CBNTs) showing the best mechanical and thermal results. Natural fibres reported better mechanical performance when mixed with EVOs than conventional systems. On the other hand, one of the main constraints observed is the lack of consistency in reporting key chemical and mechanical parameters across studies. Environmental properties and end-of-life use are significant challenges to be addressed in future studies, as there remains a significant gap in understanding the end-of-life of these materials. Future research should focus on the exploration of eco-friendly epoxidation reagents and standardise protocols to compare and measure oil properties before and after being epoxidised. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Polymer Composites with Upcycling Waste)
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20 pages, 3251 KiB  
Review
Chemical Functionalization of Camelina, Hemp, and Rapeseed Oils for Sustainable Resin Applications: Strategies for Tailoring Structure and Performance
by Elham Nadim, Pavan Paraskar, Emma J. Murphy, Mohammadnabi Hesabi and Ian Major
Compounds 2025, 5(3), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/compounds5030026 - 10 Jul 2025
Viewed by 309
Abstract
This review examines the chemical functionalization of Camelina, hemp, and rapeseed oils for the development of sustainable bio-based resins. Key strategies, including epoxidation, acrylation, and click chemistry, are discussed in the context of tailoring molecular structure to enhance reactivity, compatibility, and material performance. [...] Read more.
This review examines the chemical functionalization of Camelina, hemp, and rapeseed oils for the development of sustainable bio-based resins. Key strategies, including epoxidation, acrylation, and click chemistry, are discussed in the context of tailoring molecular structure to enhance reactivity, compatibility, and material performance. Particular emphasis is placed on overcoming the inherent limitations of vegetable oil structures to enable their integration into high-performance polymer systems. The agricultural sustainability and environmental advantages of these feedstocks are also highlighted alongside the technical challenges associated with their chemical modification. Functionalized oils derived from Camelina, hemp, and rapeseed have been successfully applied in various resin systems, including protective coatings, pressure-sensitive adhesives, UV-curable oligomers, and polyurethane foams. These advances demonstrate their growing potential as renewable alternatives to petroleum-based polymers and underline the critical role of structure–property relationships in designing next-generation sustainable materials. Ultimately, the objective of this review is to distill the most effective functionalization pathways and design principles, thereby illustrating how Camelina, hemp, and rapeseed oils could serve as viable substitutes for petrochemical resins in future industrial applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Compounds–Derived from Nature)
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19 pages, 12170 KiB  
Article
Development and Interfacial Mechanism of Epoxy Soybean Oil-Based Semi-Liquid Gel Materials for Wellbore Sealing Applications
by Yuexin Tian, Yintao Liu, Haifeng Dong, Xiangjun Liu and Jinjun Huang
Gels 2025, 11(7), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11070482 - 22 Jun 2025
Viewed by 530
Abstract
In this study, a novel semi-liquid gel material based on bisphenol A-type epoxy resin (E51), methylhexahydrophthalic anhydride (MHHPA), and epoxidized soybean oil (ESO) was developed for high-performance wellbore sealing. The gel system exhibits tunable gelation times ranging from 1 to 10 h (±0.5 [...] Read more.
In this study, a novel semi-liquid gel material based on bisphenol A-type epoxy resin (E51), methylhexahydrophthalic anhydride (MHHPA), and epoxidized soybean oil (ESO) was developed for high-performance wellbore sealing. The gel system exhibits tunable gelation times ranging from 1 to 10 h (±0.5 h) and maintains a low viscosity of <100 ± 2 mPa·s at 25 °C, enabling efficient injection into the wellbore. The optimized formulation achieved a compressive strength exceeding 112.5 ± 3.1 MPa and a breakthrough pressure gradient of over 50 ± 2.8 MPa/m with only 0.9 PV dosage. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) confirmed the formation of a dense, crosslinked polyester network. Interfacial adhesion was significantly enhanced by the incorporation of 0.25 wt% octadecyltrichlorosilane (OTS), yielding an adhesion layer thickness of 391.6 ± 12.7 nm—approximately 9.89 times higher than that of the unmodified system. Complete degradation was achieved within 48 ± 2 h at 120 °C using a γ-valerolactone and p-toluenesulfonic acid solution. These results demonstrate the material’s potential as a high-strength, injectable, and degradable sealing solution for complex subsurface environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Enhanced Oil Recovery Technologies, 4th Edition)
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22 pages, 2500 KiB  
Review
A Vegetable-Oil-Based Polyurethane Coating for Controlled Nutrient Release: A Review
by Lyu Yao, Azizah Baharum, Lih Jiun Yu, Zibo Yan and Khairiah Haji Badri
Coatings 2025, 15(6), 665; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15060665 - 30 May 2025
Viewed by 681
Abstract
Bio-based polyurethane (PU) is synthesized either via the prepolymerization or addition polymerization of bio-based polyols and isocyanates. PU synthesized from vegetable-oil-based polyols has excellent properties for various application needs. Bio-based PU coatings from renewable vegetable oil show good degradability in soil while controlling [...] Read more.
Bio-based polyurethane (PU) is synthesized either via the prepolymerization or addition polymerization of bio-based polyols and isocyanates. PU synthesized from vegetable-oil-based polyols has excellent properties for various application needs. Bio-based PU coatings from renewable vegetable oil show good degradability in soil while controlling the nutrient release process. Castor oil, soybean oil, palm oil, olive oil, linseed oil, rapeseed oil, cottonseed oil, and recycled oil have been explored in the study of bio-based PU coatings for controlled nutrient release. Castor oil as a natural polyol has been widely studied. Generally, the epoxidation ring opening method is preferred to prepare bio-based polyols. Almost all of these studies used a drum coating machine to complete the coating process. To obtain better controlled release performance, a vegetable-oil-based PU (VPU) coating was modified by increasing the degrees of crosslinking and hydrophobicity and improving the coating uniformity. The nutrient release duration of the modified castor-oil-based PU-coated fertilizer reached 200 days. VPU-coated fertilizers, in contrast to traditional fertilizers, effectively reduce the detrimental impact on the environment. Although the preparation of VPU-coated fertilizers is still at the laboratory scale, application research has been carried out in field crops. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Preparation and Applications of Bio-Based Polymer Coatings)
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17 pages, 3064 KiB  
Article
Allelopathic Potential of Artemisia absinthium and Artemisia vulgaris from Serbia: Chemical Composition and Bioactivity on Weeds
by Teodora Tojić, Tijana Đorđević, Rada Đurović-Pejčev, Milica Aćimović, Dragana Božić, Ljiljana Radivojević, Marija Sarić-Krsmanović and Sava Vrbničanin
Plants 2025, 14(11), 1663; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14111663 - 30 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 615
Abstract
The use of Artemisia species’ plant extracts and essential oils, which are rich in bioactive compounds (allelochemicals), could support weed management. This study focused on the chemical analysis and evaluation of the allelopathic potential of plant extracts (PEs) and essential oils (EOs) of [...] Read more.
The use of Artemisia species’ plant extracts and essential oils, which are rich in bioactive compounds (allelochemicals), could support weed management. This study focused on the chemical analysis and evaluation of the allelopathic potential of plant extracts (PEs) and essential oils (EOs) of Artemisia absinthium and A. vulgaris on the germination and early seedling growth of weeds (Amaranthus retroflexus and Setaria viridis) in vitro. The plant extract from A. vulgaris showed higher antioxidant activity (IC50 = 0.171 ± 0.01 mg/mL) and phenolic content than that from A. absinthium (IC50 = 0.263 ± 0.01 mg/mL). Chlorogenic acid was the most abundant phenol in both extracts. However, A. absinthium contained a higher amount (1.694 ± 0.081 mg/g) and exhibited a stronger inhibitory effect on the germination of A. retroflexus (EC50 = 0.54 ± 0.02%) and S. viridis (EC50 = 1.51 ± 0.07%) compared to A. vulgaris. The dominant components of A. absinthium essential oil were β-thujone (18.9%), cis-ocimene epoxide (7.88%), and bicyclogermacrene (7.04%), while the main constituents of A. vulgaris essential oil included gurjunene (10.41%), cis-crysanthenyl acetate (7.17%), and γ-humulene (6.67%). The lowest EC50 values for A. absinthium essential oil regarding seed germination and seedling length were estimated for S. viridis (0.28 ± 0.48% and 0.03 ± 0.00%, respectively), whereas A. retroflexus was the most sensitive to A. vulgaris essential oil (0.11 ± 0.04% and 0.02 ± 0.00%, respectively). All tested extracts showed allelopathic potential; however, the results indicate that the essential oils had a stronger inhibitory effect than the plant extracts. Full article
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16 pages, 1956 KiB  
Article
Study of the Impact of Epoxidized Soybean Oil on the Characteristics of Wood-Polymer Composites
by Andrii Kulikov, Dmytro Kryvolapov, Kostyantyn Sukhyy, Oleksandr Yeromin, Marcel Fedak, Olena Prokopenko, Iryna Sukha, Angelo Musaio and Tomas Hrebik
Materials 2025, 18(11), 2455; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18112455 - 23 May 2025
Viewed by 424
Abstract
The effect of epoxidized soybean oil on the operational, technological, and physical and mechanical properties of composites based on high-density recycled polyethylene filled with wood floor was investigated. It has been shown that the introduction of epoxidized soybean oil in the amount of [...] Read more.
The effect of epoxidized soybean oil on the operational, technological, and physical and mechanical properties of composites based on high-density recycled polyethylene filled with wood floor was investigated. It has been shown that the introduction of epoxidized soybean oil in the amount of 0.5 wt.% into the wood-polymer composite (WPC) improves the physical, mechanical, and operational properties of the material: the Charpy impact strength (on notched samples) increases from 7.5 kJ/m2 to 20.0 kJ/m2, the bending strength increases from 31.6 MPa to 50.8 MPa, and the coefficient of linear thermal expansion decreases by 15%. With a further increase in the content of epoxidized soybean oil in the composite, its water absorption and technological shrinkage decrease, but its physical and mechanical properties deteriorate. Full article
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23 pages, 2454 KiB  
Article
Rheological Behavior and Mechanical Performance of Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate)/Natural Rubber Blends Modified with Coffee Oil Epoxide for Sustainable Packaging Applications
by Rinky Ghosh, Xiaoying Zhao and Yael Vodovotz
Polymers 2025, 17(10), 1324; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17101324 - 13 May 2025
Viewed by 653
Abstract
The inherent brittleness of bio-based poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) significantly restricts its industrial applications despite its industrial compostability. Blending with elastomeric polymers addresses mechanical limitations; however, interfacial incompatibility compromises miscibility as our previous work established. Herein, we investigate coffee oil epoxide (COE) as a bio-based [...] Read more.
The inherent brittleness of bio-based poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) significantly restricts its industrial applications despite its industrial compostability. Blending with elastomeric polymers addresses mechanical limitations; however, interfacial incompatibility compromises miscibility as our previous work established. Herein, we investigate coffee oil epoxide (COE) as a bio-based plasticizer for PHBV/natural rubber (NR) blends in sustainable packaging applications. COE, derived from spent coffee grounds, was incorporated into PHBV/NR/peroxide/coagent composites via twin-screw extrusion. FTIR spectroscopy with chemometric analysis confirmed successful COE incorporation (intensified CH2 stretching: 2847, 2920 cm−1; reduced crystallinity), with PCA and PLS-DA accounting for 67.9% and 54.4% of spectral variance. COE incorporation improved optical properties (7.73% increased lightness; 21.9% reduced yellowness). Rheological characterization through Cole–Cole and Han plots demonstrated enhanced phase compatibility in the PHBV/NR/COE blends. Mechanical testing showed characteristic reductions in flexural properties: strength decreased by 16.5% and modulus by 36.8%. Dynamic mechanical analysis revealed PHBV/NR/COE blends exhibited a single relaxation transition at 32 °C versus distinct glass transition temperatures in PHBV/NR blends. Tan δ deconvolution confirmed the transformation from bimodal distribution to a single broadened peak, indicating enhanced interfacial interactions and improved miscibility. These findings demonstrated COE’s potential as a sustainable additive for biodegradable PHBV-based packaging while valorizing food waste. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodegradable Polymers in Sustainable and Biomedical Applications)
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24 pages, 7153 KiB  
Article
A Comparative Study on the Compatibilization of Thermoplastic Starch/Polybutylene Succinate Blends by Chain Extender and Epoxidized Linseed Oil
by Ke Gong, Yinshi Lu, Alexandre Portela, Soheil Farshbaf Taghinezhad, David Lawlor, Shane Connolly, Mengli Hu, Yuanyuan Chen and Maurice N. Collins
Macromol 2025, 5(2), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/macromol5020024 - 12 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1316
Abstract
The immiscibility of thermoplastic starch (TPS) and polybutylene succinate (PBS) complicates the thermal processing of these materials. This study provides the first comparative assessment of two compatibilizers with differing reaction mechanisms, Joncryl® ADR 4468 and epoxidized linseed oil (ELO), for the optimization [...] Read more.
The immiscibility of thermoplastic starch (TPS) and polybutylene succinate (PBS) complicates the thermal processing of these materials. This study provides the first comparative assessment of two compatibilizers with differing reaction mechanisms, Joncryl® ADR 4468 and epoxidized linseed oil (ELO), for the optimization of biobased TPS/PBS blends. A total of 13 batches, varying in compatibilizer and blend composition, were processed via hot melt extrusion and injection molding to produce pellets. Blends were analyzed using tensile and impact testing, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), rheology, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The findings suggest that both compatibilizers can improve the compatibility of these blends, as evidenced by higher glass transition temperatures (Tg) compared to the reference batch (100-0-N/A). Joncryl® ADR 4468 batches exhibit superior tensile strength and Young’s moduli, while ELO batches demonstrate greater elongation at break. The enhanced processability observed in Joncryl® ADR 4468 is attributed to the increased polymer chain entanglement and molecular weight, whereas ELO facilitates greater chain mobility due to its plasticizing effect. These differences arise from the distinct mechanisms of action: Joncryl® ADR 4468 promotes chain extension and crosslinking, whereas ELO mainly enhances flexibility through plasticization. Overall, this study provides a comparative assessment of these compatibilizers in TPS/PBS blends, laying the groundwork for future investigations into optimizing compatibilizer concentration and blend composition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Advances in Biodegradable Polymers)
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20 pages, 17772 KiB  
Article
Modification of Epoxidized Soybean Oil for the Preparation of Amorphous, Nonretrogradable, and Hydrophobic Starch Films
by Sara Dalle Vacche, Leandro Hernan Esposito, Daniele Bugnotti, Emanuela Callone, Sara Fernanda Orsini, Massimiliano D’Arienzo, Laura Cipolla, Simona Petroni, Alessandra Vitale, Roberta Bongiovanni and Sandra Dirè
Polysaccharides 2025, 6(2), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/polysaccharides6020040 - 7 May 2025
Viewed by 573
Abstract
Starch was plasticized with epoxidized soybean oil (ESO) modified by reaction with cinnamic acid (CA), and films were prepared using solvent casting from water/ethanol solutions. They exhibited good hydrophobicity, reduced water sensitivity, and showed the same transparency as glycerol-plasticized counterparts, but with less [...] Read more.
Starch was plasticized with epoxidized soybean oil (ESO) modified by reaction with cinnamic acid (CA), and films were prepared using solvent casting from water/ethanol solutions. They exhibited good hydrophobicity, reduced water sensitivity, and showed the same transparency as glycerol-plasticized counterparts, but with less flexibility. Interestingly, modified ESO enhanced gelatinization and hindered retrogradation of the biopolymer. ESO was reacted with CA without the use of catalysts to obtain a β-hydroxyester; in order to optimize the synthesis process, different reaction conditions were explored, varying the stoichiometry and the heating cycles. Products were fully characterized by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, 1H and 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and the different reactions following the opening of the oxirane ring were discussed. The properties of the novel starch-based films prepared with modified ESO highlight their use in food packaging, disposable devices, and agricultural mulching films. Full article
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19 pages, 6268 KiB  
Article
Performance of Micronized Biowax Powders Replacing PTFE Fillers in Bio-Based Epoxy Resin Coatings
by Pieter Samyn, Chris Vanheusden and Patrick Cosemans
Coatings 2025, 15(5), 511; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15050511 - 24 Apr 2025
Viewed by 728
Abstract
In view of sustainable-by-design issues, there is an urgent need for replacing harmful coating ingredients with more ecological, non-toxic alternatives from bio-based sources. In particular, fluorine derivatives such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) powders are frequently applied as coating additives because of their versatile role [...] Read more.
In view of sustainable-by-design issues, there is an urgent need for replacing harmful coating ingredients with more ecological, non-toxic alternatives from bio-based sources. In particular, fluorine derivatives such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) powders are frequently applied as coating additives because of their versatile role in rendering hydrophobicity and lubrication. In this research, a screening study is presented regarding the performance of alternative micronized biowax powders, produced from various natural origins, when used as functional additives in protective epoxy coatings for wood. The micronized wax powders from bio-based sources (carnauba wax, rice bran wax, amide biowax) and reference fossil sources (PE wax/PTFE, PE wax, PTFE), of large (8 to 11 µm) and small sizes (4 to 6 µm), were added into fully bio-based epoxy clear coat formulations based on epoxidized flaxseed oil and proprietary acid hardener. Within concentration ranges of 0.5 to 10 wt.-%, it was observed that rice bran micropowders present higher hardness, scratch resistance, abrasion resistance, and hydrophobicity when compared to the results for PTFE. Moreover, the proprietary mixtures of biowax combined with PTFE micropowders provide synergistic effects, with PTFE mostly dominating in regards to the mechanical and physical properties. However, the granulometry of the micronized wax powders is a crucial parameter, as the smallest biowax particle sizes are the most effective. Based on further analysis of the sliding interface, a more ductile surface film forms for the coatings with rice bran and carnauba wax micropowders, while the amide wax is more brittle in parallel with the synthetic waxes and PTFE. Infrared spectroscopy confirms a favorable distribution of biowax micropowders at the coating surface in parallel with the formation of a protective surface film and protection of the epoxy matrix after abrasive wear. This study confirms that alternatives to PTFE for the mechanical protection, gloss, and hydrophobicity of wood coatings should be critically selected among the available grades of micronized waxes, depending on the targeted properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Functional Polymer Coatings and Films)
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15 pages, 4070 KiB  
Review
Sustainable Bio-Based Epoxy Technology Progress
by Chunfu Chen
Processes 2025, 13(4), 1256; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13041256 - 21 Apr 2025
Viewed by 971
Abstract
Sustainable bio-based epoxy technology is developed by using bio-based epoxy materials instead of conventional fossil-derived ones. Significant progress in new bio-based epoxy material development on bio-based epoxy resins, curing agents, and additives, as well as bio-based epoxy formulated products, has been achieved recently [...] Read more.
Sustainable bio-based epoxy technology is developed by using bio-based epoxy materials instead of conventional fossil-derived ones. Significant progress in new bio-based epoxy material development on bio-based epoxy resins, curing agents, and additives, as well as bio-based epoxy formulated products, has been achieved recently not only in fundamental academic studies but also in industrial product development. There are mainly two types of bio-based epoxy resins: conventional epoxy resins and novel epoxy resins, depending on the epoxy resin building-block type used. Bio-based conventional epoxy resins are prepared by using the bio-based epichlorohydrin to replace conventional fossil-based epichlorohydrin. Bio-based novel epoxy resins are usually prepared from epoxidation of renewable precursors such as unsaturated vegetable oils, saccharides, tannins, cardanols, terpenes, rosins, and lignin. Typical bio-based curing agents are bio-based polyamines, polyamides, amidoamines, and cardanol-based phenalkamine-type curing agents. Cardanol is a typical bio-based reactive additive available commercially. Certain types of partially bio-based formulated epoxy products have been developed and supplied for use in bonding, coating, casting, composite, and laminating applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Polymer Processing Technology)
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31 pages, 8222 KiB  
Article
Multifunctional 3D-Printable Photocurable Elastomer with Self-Healing Capability Derived from Waste Cooking Oil
by Pengyu Wang, Jiahui Sun, Mengyu Liu, Chuanyang Tang, Yang Yang, Guanzhi Ding, Qing Liu and Shuoping Chen
Molecules 2025, 30(8), 1824; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30081824 - 18 Apr 2025
Viewed by 527
Abstract
This study presents a sustainable approach to transform waste cooking oil (WCO) into a multifunctional 3D-printable photocurable elastomer with integrated self-healing capabilities. A linear monomer, WCO-based methacrylate fatty acid ethyl ester (WMFAEE), was synthesized via a sequential strategy of transesterification, epoxidation, and ring-opening [...] Read more.
This study presents a sustainable approach to transform waste cooking oil (WCO) into a multifunctional 3D-printable photocurable elastomer with integrated self-healing capabilities. A linear monomer, WCO-based methacrylate fatty acid ethyl ester (WMFAEE), was synthesized via a sequential strategy of transesterification, epoxidation, and ring-opening esterification. By copolymerizing WMFAEE with hydroxypropyl acrylate (HPA), a novel photocurable elastomer was developed, which could be amenable to molding using an LCD light-curing 3D printer. The resulting WMFAEE-HPA elastomer exhibits exceptional mechanical flexibility (elongation at break: 645.09%) and autonomous room-temperature self-healing properties, achieving 57.82% recovery of elongation after 24 h at 25 °C. Furthermore, the material demonstrates weldability (19.97% retained elongation after 12 h at 80 °C) and physical reprocessability (7.75% elongation retention after initial reprocessing). Additional functionalities include pressure-sensitive adhesion (interfacial toughness: 70.06 J/m2 on glass), thermally triggered shape memory behavior (fixed at −25 °C with reversible deformation/recovery at ambient conditions), and notable biodegradability (13.25% mass loss after 45-day soil burial). Molecular simulations reveal that the unique structure of the WMFAEE monomer enables a dual mechanism of autonomous self-healing at room temperature without external stimuli: chain diffusion and entanglement-driven gap closure, followed by hydrogen bond-mediated network reorganization. Furthermore, the synergy between monomer chain diffusion/entanglement and dynamic hydrogen bond reorganization allows the WMFAEE-HPA system to achieve a balance of multifunctional integration. Moreover, the integration of these multifunctional attributes highlights the potential of this WCO-derived photocurable elastomer for various possible 3D printing applications, such as flexible electronics, adaptive robotics, environmentally benign adhesives, and so on. It also establishes a paradigm for converting low-cost biowastes into high-performance smart materials through precision molecular engineering. Full article
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17 pages, 5007 KiB  
Article
Properties of Composites from Curauá Fibers and High-Density Bio-Based Polyethylene: The Influence of Processing Methods
by Daniele O. de Castro, Rachel P. O. Santos, Adhemar C. Ruvolo-Filho and Elisabete Frollini
Fibers 2025, 13(4), 45; https://doi.org/10.3390/fib13040045 - 11 Apr 2025
Viewed by 526
Abstract
The study examined composites composed of curauá fibers (10%) and a high-density bio-based polyethylene (HDBPE) matrix, emphasizing the effects of processing methods on their final properties. In addition, plant-derived oils were applied as compatibilizers to improve the interfacial adhesion between the hydrophilic fibers [...] Read more.
The study examined composites composed of curauá fibers (10%) and a high-density bio-based polyethylene (HDBPE) matrix, emphasizing the effects of processing methods on their final properties. In addition, plant-derived oils were applied as compatibilizers to improve the interfacial adhesion between the hydrophilic fibers and the hydrophobic HDBPE, thereby supporting the process’s sustainability. The comparative analysis of HDBPE/curauá fiber/plant-based oil composites utilized distinct methodologies: compounding with an internal mixer, followed by thermopressing and mixture composition using a twin-screw extruder with subsequent injection molding. Castor oil (CO), canola oil (CA), or epoxidized soybean oil (OSE) were employed as compatibilizers (5%). All composites displayed high levels of crystallinity (up to 86%) compared to neat HDBPE (67%), likely due to interactions with curauá fibers and compatibilizers. The use of twin-screw extruder/injection molding produced composites with higher impact and flexural strength/modulus-assessed at 5%(approximately 222 J/m to 290 J/m; 22/700 MPa to 26/880 MPa, respectively), considerably exceeding those formed via internal mixer/thermopressing (approximately 110 J/m to 123 J/m; 14/600 MPa to 20/700 MPa). Micrographs of the composites indicated that the extruder separated the fiber bundles into smaller-diameter units, which may have facilitated the transfer of load from the matrix to the fibers, optimizing the composite’s mechanical performance. As a compatibilizer, CO enhanced both properties and, when combined with the twin-screw extruder/injection technique, emerged as the optimal choice for HDBPE/curauá fiber composites. Full article
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