Search Results (125)

Breathing reserve (BR) is the remaining proportion of achievable minute ventilation that remains unutilized at total exhaustion during exercise. Previous studies have found a smaller BR in endurance-trained athletes compared to untrained controls. However, most of these studies have examined men. Given that women have a greater ventilatory limitation than stature-matched men, the present cross-sectional study aimed to investigate how this sex difference influences BR and lung function tests in endurance-trained females compared to matched, untrained females. To obtain further insight, we also aimed to investigate whether VO₂max serves as a predictor of BR. We examined 15 female elite runners and 15 healthy, matched female controls aged 24–33 years with regard to pulmonary function, MVV, V_Emax, BR, and VO₂max. The elite runner group had a median BR of 5%, while that of the controls was 21%, representing a significant difference. Lung function tests showed no differences between the two groups. A moderate association was found between VO₂max and BR. The female elite runners demonstrated a lower BR than the group of matched, untrained controls, which was lower than that found for male elite athletes in previous studies. This may indicate a greater ventilatory demand in female relative to male endurance athletes. Full article

Physiological tremor analysis is a practical tool for assessing the neuromuscular impacts of sport-specific training. The purpose of this study was to examine and compare the physiological characteristics of lower limb resting postural tremor in athletes from Poland’s national speed skating team, following both sprint and endurance workouts. The study included 19 male, well-trained, elite athletes (with a mean age of 18 ± 3.1 years, body mass of 71.4 ± 10.1 kg, height of 178.5 ± 9.0 cm, and training experience of 12.6 ± 2.8 years) and a control group of 19 physically active but non-athlete men (with a mean age of 19 ± 2.3 years, body mass of 78.9 ± 12.1 kg, and height of 181.5 ± 11.0 cm). This group was assessed under resting conditions to provide baseline reference values for physiological tremor and to evaluate whether the neuromuscular tremor response is specific to trained athletes. Tremor amplitude and frequency were measured using an accelerometer, with data log-transformed to normalize the power spectrum distribution. Key findings indicate a significant effect of training condition on tremor amplitude in the low-frequency range (L(2_5); F_(1,18) = 38.42; p < 0.0001; η_p² = 0.68) and high-frequency range (L(9_14); F_(1,36) = 19.19; p < 0.0001; η_p² = 0.51). Post hoc analysis showed that tremor amplitude increased significantly after both sprint (p < 0.001) and endurance training (p < 0.001) compared to rest. No significant differences were observed between sprint and endurance training conditions for L(2_5) (p = 0.1014), but sprint training resulted in a greater increase in tremor in the high-frequency range (L(9_14); p < 0.0001). Tremor frequency (F(2_5) and F(9_14)) also increased significantly post-training. Notably, no differences were observed between limbs, indicating symmetrical neuromuscular adaptation. These findings highlight the utility of tremor analysis in monitoring neuromuscular fatigue and performance in speed skaters. Future research should explore the application of this method in broader athletic populations and evaluate its potential integration into training programs. Full article

Background: ESC sports classification in 2020, based on cardiac morphological adaptations, may not fully reflect also the variations in functional parameters of athletes. This study aims to characterize CPET-derived physiological parameters in elite athletes according to the ESC classification and evaluate whether this morphological classification also corresponds to a functional categorization. Methods: Elite athletes underwent pre-participation screening before the 2023 European Games and 2024 Olympic Games. Athletes were classified into four categories (skill, power, mixed and endurance). CPET was performed on a cycle ergometer using a ramp protocol, with measurements of VO₂ max, heart rate, power output and ventilatory efficiency. Results: We enrolled 1033 athletes (46.8% females; mean 25.6 ± 5.2 years old) engaged in skill (14.1%), power (33.2%), mixed (33.3%) and endurance (19.4%) disciplines. O₂ pulse showed an incremental significant increase (p < 0.0001) among sport categories (skill 14.9 ± 3.8 mL/beat; power 17.5 ± 4.6 mL/beat, mixed 19 ± 4.3 mL/beat and endurance 22.7 ± 5.8 mL/beat). The lowest ${\dot{\mathrm{V}}\mathrm{O}}_2$max was observed in skill disciplines (36.3 ± 7.9 mL/min/kg) whilst endurance ones showed the highest values (52.4 ± 9.7 mL/min/kg) (p < 0.0001). ${\dot{\mathrm{V}}\mathrm{O}}_2$max was higher in power compared to mixed (42 ± 7.7 mL/min/kg vs. 40.5 ± 5.8 mL/min/kg, p = 0.005) disciplines with an overlapping amount between some mixed and power disciplines. No differences were found for VE max (p = 0.075). Conclusions: Our study provided values of CPET parameters in elite athletes. Significant differences in CPET parameters were observed among different sports disciplines, with endurance athletes showing the highest absolute and relative values in all parameters. An overlap amount was noted between mixed and power categories, especially for relative maximal oxygen consumption. Full article

Objectives: The ability to efficiently regulate body temperature is crucial during endurance activities such as trail running, especially during competitive events in hot conditions. Over the past decade, passive hyperthermia exposure has grown significantly in popularity as a means of improving acclimatization and performance in hot environments. The present study aims to compare the physiological changes that occur in a group of professional athletes due to passive sauna exposure (80–90 °C) and their own response to maximal aerobic performance. Methods: Twelve professional trail runners (eight men and four women) were tested in three conditions: (i) baseline; (ii) before; and (iii) after (a) passive dry sauna exposure and (b) a maximal endurance test. In both cases, physiological parameters such as heart rate, tympanic temperature, arterial and muscle oxygen saturation, and blood concentrations of glucose, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and hemoglobin were measured. Results: Sauna exposure produced similar trends in cardiovascular and metabolic responses to those occurring during exercise, but at a much lower physiological level. Glucose and HDL levels were both significantly elevated (or tended to be so) after sauna and exercise (p < 0.03 and p < 0.01, respectively). Athletes who mobilized the sum of substrates (glucose and HDL) performed the exercise test faster (r = −0.76; p < 0.004). The response of arterial oxygen saturation (decreased) was similar during sauna and exercise, but opposite at the muscular level (increased during sauna and decreased during exercise). Additionally, inter-individual variability in responses was noted for most of the other parameters, suggesting the existence of ‘responders’ and ‘non-responders’ to thermal stimuli. Conclusions: The physiological responses of trained endurance athletes are moderately impacted by passive sauna use. However, individual changes could be correlated with endurance performance and optimizing individualization. Heat stimuli promote different physiological responses in terms of cardiac function, oxygen kinetics and substrate mobilization, albeit to a lesser extent than exercise. Greater substrate mobilization during maximal endurance exercise was found to be correlated with better performance. Further studies are needed to explore the concepts of metabolic flexibility, as described here, and how heat exposure may improve systemic health and performance. Full article

Background: This study aimed to examine the difference in blood lactate and oxygen saturation between monofin swimming with respiration and with breath-hold diving. The second aim was to investigate the difference between elite and intermediate breath hold-divers. Methods: This study included 15 freediving athletes (five females). Their chronological age was 25.9 ± 2.9 years, body mass 75.5 ± 11.9 kg, and height 180.2 ± 8.9 cm. The sample of variables included anthropometric indices, blood lactate, and oxygen saturation. The participants were measured during 100 m monofin horizontal swimming with respiration and breath-hold diving. Descriptive and inferential statistics were measured. The Kolmogorov–Smirnov (K-S) test was used to determine the normality of distribution. To determine the differences between the groups of participants, the t-test was used to determine the differences in anthropometric indices. Furthermore, to observe the differences between repeated measures, ANOVA with Fischer LSD test was used. Following that, the two-factor ANOVA analysis group (respiration/apnea) and group (intermediate/elite level)) was performed to determine the possible differences between groups in both conditions. Also, Cohen’s effect size was calculated to quantify the differences among the measurements. Results: The results show that the divers perceive significantly smaller levels of lactates during dives with respiration (intermediate, 2.44 ± 0.64 mmol/L; elite, 2.23 ± 0.34 mmol/L) than during apnea (intermediate, 6.06 ± 2.00 mmol/L; elite, 4.10 ± 0.66 mmol/L). Furthermore, intermediate freedivers tend to perceive significantly higher values. Conclusions: To conclude, it can be noted that apnea monofin diving elicits significantly higher lactate production in comparison with distance-matched swimming. Such findings imply the anaerobic nature of breath-holding diving. Apart from that, elite divers tend to show a lower accumulation of lactate. Such findings imply that elite-level divers can endure prolonged apneas with lower anaerobic metabolism use. Full article

Background/Objectives:Training periodization is fundamental to optimizing athletic performance, with carbohydrate metabolism playing a critical role in supporting high-intensity efforts by facilitating muscle glycogen resynthesis. Recent studies suggest that high carbohydrate diets and high molecular weight carbohydrate (HMWC) supplementation can improve both endurance and anaerobic performance, while potentially influencing oxidative stress. This study investigates the effects of a high carbohydrate diet combined with HMWC supplementation on anaerobic performance and oxidative stress markers in elite swimmers. Methods: Eight national-level swimmers (tier 3–4) completed a three-day training microcycle with dietary interventions. Anaerobic capacity was assessed using Wingate tests for upper and lower limbs, while swimming performance was evaluated through an 8 × 100 m exercise protocol. The study was conducted using a one group quasi-experimental design with a pre-test/post-test structure, with participants acting as their own controls. Baseline measurements were taken prior to the intervention, followed by the administration of the high carbohydrate diet and HMWC supplementation. Post-intervention assessments were performed using the same test protocols to assess changes in performance and oxidative stress markers (such as GSH, CK, MDA, FRAP), which were determined by ELISA. The samples were stored at −80 °C until the evaluations. STATISTICA 5.0 (StatSoft, Inc., 1995) was used for statistical analysis of the obtained results. Results: The obtained results demonstrated significant improvements in peak power output for the lower limbs following supplementation (p < 0.001) and a reduced time to peak power for the upper limbs (p < 0.001). Additionally, velocity during the final swimming segments increased significantly following the intervention (p < 0.001). However, no notable changes were observed in antioxidant enzyme activity (SOD, CAT, GPx, GR) or low molecular weight antioxidants, suggesting a potential ceiling effect in redox adaptations. Lipid peroxidation, measured by MDA levels, increased post-supplementation (p < 0.05), indicating oxidative stress associated with high-intensity training and supplementation. Conclusions: The findings underscore the efficacy of combined dietary strategies with HMWC in enhancing anaerobic performance in swimming, while highlighting the necessity for further exploration of oxidative stress dynamics. Full article

Athletes engaged in dynamic sports experience a shortened red blood cell (RBC) lifespan and accelerated turnover due to RBC destruction. This accelerated RBC turnover might have a positive impact on exercise performance by increasing the number of young red blood cells with a high oxygen-carrying capacity. However, accelerated turnover might also be a result of intravascular haemolysis caused by RBC destruction during exercise, impairing RBC function and oxygen transport. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the relationship between reticulocyte count as an indicator of short-term RBC profile changes and exercise capacity. We retrospectively evaluated elite Italian athletes engaged in endurance or mixed sports disciplines selected for the 2023 European Games or 2024 Olympic Games. Athletes underwent blood tests, echocardiography, and cardiopulmonary exercise tests. We assessed the relationship between reticulocytes and the peak value of VO₂ (peak VO₂) and anaerobic threshold (AT). In addition, the effects of age, sex, haemoglobin concentration, stroke volume, peak heart rate, and reticulocytes on peak VO₂ and AT were assessed using multiple linear regression. Of the 105 athletes, reticulocyte count (0.059 ± 0.024 × 10¹²/L) negatively correlated with peak VO₂ (45.5 ± 9.1 mL/min/kg) (p = 0.022) and AT (27.6 ± 7.9 mL/min/kg) (p = 0.040). Using multivariate linear regression analysis, reticulocytes were independent predictors of peak VO₂ and AT (95% confidence interval: −192.3 to −45.9; p = 0.001; 95% confidence interval: −143.4 to −13.8: p = 0.018, respectively). Our findings indicated a negative relationship between reticulocyte count and peak VO₂ or AT. The life span of reticulocytes was close to the period of transient decline in RBC function that occurred after high-intensity exercise; therefore, the changes in reticulocytes might be related to the decline in exercise performance owing to this decline in RBC function. Full article

Background: Proper nutrition is crucial for optimizing performance and recovery in elite young football players. This study aimed to assess sports nutrition knowledge, adherence to the Mediterranean diet (MD), and carbohydrate intake across different training phases, evaluating their relations with match performance. Methods: Thirty-three male HNK Hajduk academy players (15–19 years) completed a nutrition questionnaire and a seven-day food diary, while performance metrics were analyzed using GPS tracking. Results: The results showed that sports nutrition knowledge was generally low (43.0 ± 17.0%), with significant misconceptions about carbohydrate fueling strategies. Players significantly overestimated their MD adherence, with a self-reported KIDMED index (6.06 ± 2.41) notably higher than the corrected score derived from food diaries (4.21 ± 2.53, p < 0.001). Carbohydrate intake was suboptimal on match-related days (3.64 g/kg on match day, 4.45 g/kg on the day before), failing to meet the recommended minimum of 6 g/kg per day. Regression analysis predicted that energy (β = 0.83; p = 0.02) and carbohydrate intake (β = 0.69; p = 0.03) on match day significantly predicted distance covered per minute, with a positive relationship observed for both outcomes, highlighting its impact on endurance. However, no significant relationship was found between carbohydrate intake and maximum sprint speed. Conclusions: These findings underscore the need for structured nutrition education within football academies to enhance players’ dietary habits and performance outcomes. Future research should focus on longitudinal interventions to assess how improved nutrition knowledge influences dietary adherence and athletic performance over time. Although knowledge of sports nutrition is fundamental, practical training and education to improve dietary competencies are crucial for athletes to effectively apply this knowledge in daily training and match preparations. Full article

Background: Various creatinine-based equations are used to estimate the glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) in athletes, but each has limitations. The aim of our study was to identify the most suitable formula for use in athletes. Methods: We evaluated 490 Olympic athletes (27 ± 5.3 yo) with normal values of serum creatinine and no history of kidney diseases. Athletes were divided into those practicing skills and endurance disciplines. The EGFR was calculated with Cockcroft–Gault (CG), MDRD, MCQE and CKD-EPI, and classified as stages G1–G5 according to the Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) GFR categories. Results: Endurance athletes showed higher serum creatinine (0.91 ± 0.14 mg/dL vs. 0.88 ± 0.13 mg/dL in skills, p = 0.014). The eGFR calculated with the CKD-EPI and MCQE formulas showed no differences between the groups. The CG formula produced a lower eGFR for endurance athletes (113.6 ± 27 mL/min/1.73 m²) compared to skills athletes (122.6 ± 30.8, p = 0.008), while MDRD produced higher values for endurance athletes (129.3 ± 25.8 vs. 122.6 ± 24 mL/min/1.73 m², p = 0.004). According to CKD-EPI, all athletes were in G1, while with MCQE, 0.5% of skills athletes and 1% of endurance athletes were in G2. With the CG formula, a significant percentage of athletes were in G2 (13.2% of skills athletes and 18.5% of endurance athletes, p = 0.125). With the MDRD formula, 29 athletes (5.9%) were in G2 (6% for skills athletes and 5.8% for endurance athletes, p = 0.927). Conclusions: CKD-EPI and MCQE showed better stability and reliability, making them the most suitable for kidney function evaluation in athletes. Full article

Background: Iron deficiency is a prevalent issue among elite athletes, particularly in endurance-based sports like football, where optimal iron status is crucial for aerobic capacity and performance. Despite the well-documented role of iron in oxygen transport and energy metabolism, the interplay between genetic polymorphisms, biochemical markers, and iron supplementation remains poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between genetic polymorphisms and iron status in professional football players, assess the impact of iron supplementation on athletic performance, and develop a predictive model for iron supplementation based on genetic and biochemical profiles. Methods: A longitudinal study was conducted over three seasons (2021–2024) with 48 male professional football players. Participants underwent genotyping for polymorphisms in ACE (rs4646994), ACTN3 (rs1815739), AMPD1 (rs17602729), CKM (rs8111989), HFE (rs1799945), and MLCK (rs2700352, rs28497577). Biochemical markers (ferritin, haemoglobin, haematocrit, serum iron) and performance metrics (GPS-derived data) were monitored. Iron supplementation (105 mg/day ferrous sulphate) was administered to players with ferritin <30 ng/mL. A Total Genotype Score (TGS) was calculated to evaluate genetic predisposition. Results: Players with “optimal” genotypes (ACE DD, ACTN3 CC, AMPD1 CC, HFE GC) required less iron supplementation (TGS = 51.25 vs. 41.32 a.u.; p = 0.013) and exhibited better performance metrics. Iron supplementation significantly improved haemoglobin and haematocrit in deficient players (p < 0.05). The TGS predicted supplementation need (AUC = 0.711; p = 0.023), with a threshold of 46.42 a.u. (OR = 5.23, 95% CI: 1.336–14.362; p = 0.017 for non-supplemented players). Furthermore, performance data revealed that iron-supplemented players had significantly lower competition time (1128.40 vs. 1972.84 min; p = 0.003), total distance covered (128,129.42 vs. 218,556.64 m; p = 0.005), and high-speed running in the 18–21 km/h (7.58 vs. 10.36 m/min; p = 0.007) and 21–24 km/h (4.43 vs. 6.13 m/min; p = 0.010) speed zones. They also started fewer matches (11.50 vs. 21.59; p < 0.001). Conclusions: Genetic profile combined with biochemical monitoring effectively predicts iron supplementation needs in athletes. Personalized nutrition strategies, guided by TGS, can optimize iron status and enhance performance in elite football players. This approach bridges a critical gap in sports science, offering a framework for precision nutrition in athletics. Full article

Objectives: Taekwondo performance is influenced by a complex and dynamic interplay of physical, nutritional, and psychological factors, all of which contribute to competitive success. However, the gender-specific relationships among these factors in young high-performance athletes remain understudied. This study aimed to fill in this knowledge gap. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted with 35 elite taekwondo athletes (male: n = 20, female: n = 15, age: 13 ± 1 years). Participants underwent anthropometric assessments, dietary evaluations, and psychological skill assessments during an 8-week training camp before the World Taekwondo Championships. Physical performance was assessed using the Frequency Speed of Kick Test (FSKT_mult) and the Taekwondo-Specific Agility Test (TSAT). Statistical analyses included independent t-tests, correlation analyses, and regression models. Results: Males exhibited significantly higher fat-free mass (FFM: 42.8 ± 2.9 kg vs. 36.3 ± 1.6 kg, p < 0.001), skeletal muscle mass (SMM: 31.1 ± 2.2 kg vs. 28.2 ± 1.6 kg, p < 0.001), and energy intake (32.4 ± 4.6 kcal/kg vs. 29.3 ± 3.1 kcal/kg, p = 0.032) than females. Males also had greater dietary intakes of vitamin A, vitamin C, magnesium, and iron (all p < 0.05). There were no gender differences in any psychological attributes associated with emotional intelligence, sport success perception, and mental toughness. Although the total kick count in the FSKT_mult was similar for male and female taekwondo athletes (100.2 ± 4.6 vs. 97.5 ± 5.9 kicks, p = 0.139), males outperformed females in round 4 (19.4 ± 1.1 vs. 18.6 ± 1.4 kicks, p = 0.048) and round 5 (18.2 ± 1.0 vs. 17.2 ± 1.0 kicks, p = 0.007) of this test, suggesting higher physical performance maintenance during the test. Regression models indicated that body mass (β = 0.901, p < 0.001) and calcium intake (β = 0.284, p = 0.011) predicted performance in males, while body mass (β = 1.372, p < 0.001), protein intake (β = 0.171, p = 0.012), and emotional regulation (β = 0.174, p = 0.012) were key predictors in females. Conclusions: These findings highlight the importance of an integrated approach to training, nutrition, and psychological preparation in optimizing taekwondo performance. While males and females demonstrated similar psychological resilience and total kick output in a taekwondo-specific test, males exhibited superior endurance in later test rounds of this test. Performance optimization in young elite taekwondo athletes may require the implementation of gender-specific training and nutrition strategies, emphasizing body weight control and calcium intake for males and protein intake for females. Full article

Introduction: Sailing is a high-intensity sport that demands a combination of physical strength, endurance, and technical skill. Sail Grand Prix (SailGP), inaugurated in 2019, epitomises a transformative approach to professional sailing. This study aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of injury and illness epidemiology among SailGP elite sailors, comparing injury and illness types and locations across different sailing activities. Methods: This prospective cohort study analysed injury and illness data from professional sailors throughout season 4 (2023/2024) of the professional sailing league. Data were collected on the number of hours spent in training, racing, and foiling, alongside injury reports, categorising injury types and locations. Incidence rates were calculated per 1000 h of sailing and 365 athlete days. Injuries were stratified by sex, position on the boat, and specific sailing activities to provide a detailed comparison. Results: A total of 100 sailors participated in the Sail GP 2024 season, accumulating 4919.84 h of recorded sailing activity: 2186.03 h in racing and 2733.80 h in training. The overall injury incidence rate was 9.96 per 1000 h of activity (95% CI: 7.17–12.75) and 7.43 per 365 athlete days (95% CI: 4.99–9.86). The injury rate was notably higher for foiling at 26.52 per 1000 h (95% CI: 19.09–33.94) compared to general sailing at 14.51 per 1000 h (95% CI: 10.44–18.57). Racing posed a greater injury risk than training, with an injury rate of 11.89 per 1000 h (95% CI: 7.77–16.46) compared to 8.41 per 1000 h for training (95% CI: 5.12–12.07). Grinders had the greatest rate of injuries at 3.86 (2.24, 5.69) injuries per 1000 h of sailing. The illness incidence rate was 5.14 per 1000 h (95% CI: 3.21–7.28), with respiratory illnesses being the most frequently reported. Conclusion: This study highlights the injury and illness risks amongst elite sailors in Sail GP. Males were at higher risk of injury, with the position of grinders being the most commonly injured. Ankle and knee injuries were the most prevalent. Future research should focus on developing sport-specific injury prevention programmes and examining long-term outcomes in sailors. Full article

Introduction: Meniscus injuries are common among endurance athletes, requiring structured rehabilitation to restore function and facilitate a safe return to sport. Traditional in-person rehabilitation may not always be accessible or feasible for high-performance athletes. Telerehabilitation, incorporating virtual reality, motion tracking, and telemonitoring, offers an innovative approach to guided recovery. However, evidence supporting its effectiveness in elite athletes remains limited. Case presentation: This case report explores the application of an innovative telerehabilitation program for a 49-year-old triathlete recovering from partial meniscectomy following a medial meniscus tear. The program was structured into three progressive phases over 12 weeks, focusing on restoring range of motion (ROM), muscle strength, and functional stability while gradually reintroducing sports-specific activities. Results: By the end of the rehabilitation, the patient achieved full ROM and muscle strength (scoring 5/5 on the Medical Research Council scale for the vastus medialis), along with a pain-free state in both static and dynamic conditions. The integration of telemonitoring devices facilitated detailed monitoring and feedback, enabling personalized adjustments to the rehabilitation protocol. Key milestones included a return to swimming and cycling in Phase 2, reintroduction of running in Phase 3, and a full resumption of triathlon training by week 12. Conclusions: Despite the positive results, the study highlights the need for further research to validate these findings across larger cohorts and establish standardized telerehabilitation protocols for athletes. This case underscores the potential of digital health technologies in enhancing recovery trajectories for high-demand athletes post-meniscus surgery, paving the way for supervised, accelerated, and effective sports reintegration. Full article

Objectives: This study aimed to examine the effects of endurance and high-intensity resistance training on arterial stiffness and ventricular repolarization in elite athletes. Methods: A total of 50 male athletes from different sports disciplines (volleyball, football, judo, and wrestling) and a sedentary group of 30 males participated in this study. Data collected from all participants included age, height, body weight, cardiovascular hemodynamic parameters, arterial stiffness parameters, and ECG measurements. Results: There was no significant age difference between the athlete group (20.42 ± 1.903 years) and the control group (20.97 ± 1.771 years) (p > 0.05). However, body mass index (BMI) values in the control group (24.83 ± 2.22 kg/m²) were significantly different from those in the athlete group (22.39 ± 2.663 kg/m²) (p < 0.05). Significant differences were found between the athlete and control groups in QT dispersion, systolic blood pressure, pulse pressure, and central pulse pressure values (p < 0.05), while similar results were obtained for arterial stiffness parameters (p > 0.05). Conclusions: The lack of a difference in pulse wave velocity and augmentation index (AIx) values between the athletes and the control group suggests that athletes do not bear additional risks regarding arterial stiffness. However, increased systolic blood pressure, pulse pressure, and central pulse pressure, among the hemodynamic parameters, indicate potential variations in vascular wall compliance and hemodynamic responses in the cardiovascular system. The increase in QT dispersion suggests that athletes may exhibit a heterogeneous repolarization process and an elevated risk of ventricular arrhythmias compared to the general population. Full article

Background and Objectives: The insertion/deletion (I/D) polymorphism in ACE, the gene encoding the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), has been suggested as a genetic variation that can influence exercise performance and risk of injury in elite athletes. The I allele has been associated with enhanced endurance performance and with reduced inflammation, while the D allele has been associated with improved performance in strength and power activities. However, the role of this genetic variant in the incidence of non-contact injury is underexplored. This study investigated the possible association of ACE I/D genotypes with the risk of non-contact injury in elite Moroccan athletes. Materials and Methods: Forty-three elite male athletes (19 cyclists and 24 field hockey players) from the Moroccan national team participated voluntarily. Non-contact injuries were recorded for all athletes and classified according to the IOC consensus statement by the medical staff of the teams. ACE I/D polymorphism genotyping was performed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using genomic DNA from blood samples. Results: There were four cyclists (21.05%) and eight field hockey players (33.33%) with a non-contact injury during the season. The distribution of the ACE I/D genotypes was similar in the athletes with vs. without non-contact injury for cyclists (DD/ID/II 25.00/50.00/25.00% vs. 46.67/40.00/13.33% non-injured, respectively; X² = 0.69, p = 0.70), field hockey players (DD/ID/II 50.00/50.00/0.00% vs. 50.00/43.75/6.25%; X² = 0.54, p = 0.76) and for the whole group of athletes (DD/ID/II 41.67/50.00/8.33% vs. 48.39/41.94/9.68%; X² = 0.22, p = 0.89). In the whole group of athletes, neither the dominant (DD + ID vs. II = OR: 1.17, 95% CI: 0.15–16.56, p = 0.89) nor the recessive (DD vs. ID + II = OR: 1.31, 95% CI: 1.31–4.89, p = 0.69) models showed an increased risk of non-contact injury. Conclusions: The distribution of the ACE I/D genotypes was similar in elite cycling and field hockey athletes with or without non-contact injury during the season. These results indicate that there is no significant association between the ACE I/D polymorphism and the susceptibility to non-contact injury in these athletes. Further research is warranted to validate these findings and to investigate their broader implications for advancing knowledge in sports injury prevention and optimizing athlete management strategies. Full article