Search Results (50)

Thermodynamics is commonly presented as a theory of macroscopic systems in stable equilibrium, built upon assumptions of extensivity and scaling with system size. In this paper, we present a universal formulation of the elementary foundations of thermodynamics, in which entropy and energy are defined and employed beyond equilibrium and without assuming extensivity. The formulation applies to all systems—large and small, with many or few particles—and to all states, whether equilibrium or nonequilibrium, by relying on carefully stated operational definitions and existence principles rather than macroscopic idealizations. Key thermodynamic concepts, including adiabatic availability and available energy, are developed and illustrated using the energy–entropy diagram representation of nonequilibrium states, which provides geometric insight into irreversibility and the limits of work extraction for systems of any size. A substantial part of the paper is devoted to the analysis of entropy transfer in non-work interactions, leading to precise definitions of heat interactions and heat-and-diffusion interactions of central importance in mesoscopic continuum theories of nonequilibrium behavior in simple and complex solids and fluids. As a direct consequence of this analysis, Clausius inequalities and the Clausius statement of the second law are derived in forms explicitly extended to nonequilibrium processes. The resulting framework presents thermodynamics as a universal theory whose concepts apply uniformly to all systems, large and small, and provides a coherent foundation for both teaching and modern applications. Full article

As remarked by Boltzmann, the Second Law of Thermodynamics is notable for the fact that it is readily proved using elementary statistical arguments, but becomes harder and harder to verify the more precise the microscopic description of a system. In this article, we investigate one particular realization of the 2nd Law, namely Joule heating in a wire under electrical bias. We analyze the production of entropy in an exactly solvable model of a quantum wire wherein the conserved flow of entropy under unitary quantum evolution is taken into account using an exact formula for the entropy current of a system of independent quantum particles. In this exact microscopic description of the quantum dynamics, the entropy production due to Joule heating does not arise automatically. Instead, we show that the expected entropy production is realized in the limit of a large number of local measurements by a series of floating thermoelectric probes along the length of the wire, which inject entropy into the system as a result of the information obtained via their continuous measurements of the system. The decoherence resulting from inelastic processes introduced by the local measurements is essential to the phenomenon of entropy production due to Joule heating, and would be expected to arise due to inelastic scattering in real systems of interacting particles. Full article

The Fluctuation Theorem establishes a relationship between microscopic reversibility and macroscopic irreversible phenomena, such as dissipation. In this short paper, we present an elementary derivation of this theorem within the framework of stochastic thermodynamics. Beginning with a brief examination of the time-reversible laws of motion that rule at the microscopic level, we discuss how through coarse-graining we arrive at the principle of detailed balance. This principle, which was originally proved for equilibrium processes, is extended to out-of-equilibrium situations in order to arrive at the Fluctuation Theorem. Though this extension is theoretically sound, one of the main purposes of this paper is to show that the origin of the practical limitations encountered, when applying this theorem to processes lasting longer than a certain duration, can be explained by the paucity of unlikely events that arise in out-of-equilibrium processes. The numerical results from the one-dimensional, one-particle stochastic model that is introduced here agree very well with the Fluctuation Theorem and, at the same time, bring to light the limits of its applicability in relation to the number of simulations or experiments and the duration of the process under study. Full article

Modeling the structure not only of whole metal products, but also of the protective coatings with which they are coated, brings a number of economic benefits through more resistant coatings and coatings that can be produced by simplifying manufacturing technology or reducing material consumption in the process. This paper presents the results of a study of dip metallization in zinc baths with Ti additions. Both steel and cast iron substrates were coated and similar results were obtained. The obtained coatings were subjected to SEM analysis with chemical composition studies, TEM characterization with selected area electron diffraction (SAED), and corrosion studies. Particle models of the elementary phases present in the zinc coating made with CaRine 3.0 software were presented and used for phase analysis. It emerged that coatings obtained in zinc baths with the addition of Ti are characterized by a more varied microstructure, the occurrence of phase separations to which Ti segregates, and higher corrosion resistance than classical zinc coatings. The higher corrosion resistance is prompted not only by the Ti content in the intermetallic phases, but also by the observed nanostructure favorably located in the alloy layer. Full article

Background/Objectives: Health and social care systems around the globe are currently undergoing a transformation towards personalized, preventive, predictive, participative precision medicine (5PM), considering the individual health status, conditions, genetic and genomic dispositions, etc., in personal, social, occupational, environmental, and behavioral contexts. This transformation is strongly supported by technologies such as micro- and nanotechnologies, advanced computing, artificial intelligence, edge computing, etc. Methods: To enable communication and cooperation between actors from different domains using different methodologies, languages, and ontologies based on different education, experiences, etc., we have to understand the transformed health ecosystem and all its components in terms of structure, function and relationships in the necessary detail, ranging from elementary particles up to the universe. In this way, we advance design and management of the complex and highly dynamic ecosystem from data to knowledge level. The challenge is the consistent, correct, and formalized representation of the transformed health ecosystem from the perspectives of all domains involved, representing and managing them based on related ontologies. The resulting business viewpoint of the real-world ecosystem must be interrelated using the ISO/IEC 21838 Top Level Ontologies standard. Thereafter, the outcome can be transformed into implementable solutions using the ISO/IEC 10746 Open Distributed Processing Reference Model. Results: The model and framework for this system-oriented, architecture-centric, ontology-based, policy-driven approach have been developed by the first author and meanwhile standardized as ISO 23903 Interoperability and Integration Reference Architecture. The formal representation of any ecosystem and its development process including examples of practical deployment of the approach, are presented in detail. This includes correct systems and standards integration and interoperability solutions. A special issue newly addressed in the paper is the correct and consistent formal representation Conclusions: of all components in the development process, enabling interoperability between and integration of any existing representational artifacts such as models, work products, as well as used terminologies and ontologies. The provided solution is meanwhile mandatory at ISOTC215, CEN/TC251 and many other standards developing organization in health informatics for all projects covering more than just one domain. Full article

Diatomite deposits in Poland are located in the Podkarpackie Voivodeship, and the only active deposit is in Jawornik Ruski. Therefore, it is a unique material. Improved rock processing methods are constantly in demand. In the research presented here, we have used research methods such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), particle shape analysis, and appropriate sets of crushing machines. Diatomite comminution tests were carried out on test stands in different crushers (jaw crusher, hammer crusher, high-pressure roller press, ball mill) using different elementary crushing force actions: crushing, abrasion, and impact, occurring separately or in combination. The machines were tested with selected variable parameters to obtain products with a wide range of grain sizes ranging from 0 to 10 mm. The ball mill (yield 87%, system C3) and the hammer crusher with HPGR (high-pressure grinding roller) (yield 79%, system D2 + D3) have the greatest impact on diatom shell release and accumulation in the finest 0–5 μm and 5–10 μm fractions. For commercial purposes, it is important to obtain very fine fractions while keeping the shells undisturbed. Full article

In this study, a method was introduced to validate the presence of a Representative Elementary Volume (REV) within marine clayey sediment containing cracks during cyclic loading and unloading of confinement pressure. Physical testing provided the basis for this verification. Once the existence of the REV for such sediment was confirmed, we established a machine-learning predictive model. This model utilizes a hybrid algorithm combining Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) with a Support Vector Machine (SVM). The model was trained using a database generated from the aforementioned physical tests. The machine-learning model demonstrates favorable predictive performance based on several statistical metrics, including the coefficient of determination (R²), mean residual error (MSE), mean relative residual error (MRSE), and the correlation coefficient R during the verification process. Utilizing the established machine-learning predictive model, one can effortlessly obtain the permeability tensor of marine clayey sediment containing cracks during cyclic loading and unloading of confinement pressure by inputting the relevant stress condition parameters. The original research cannot estimate the permeability tensor under similar loading and unloading conditions through REV. In this study, the physical model test was used to determine the REV of marine cohesive sediments with cracks by cyclic-constrained pressure loading and unloading. Referring to the results of physical tests, we developed a machine-learning prediction model that can easily estimate the permeability tensor of marine cohesive sediments with cracks under cyclic loading and constrained pressure unloading conditions. This method greatly saves time and computation and provides a direct method for engineering and technical personnel to predict the permeability tensor in this case. Full article

The concept of quantum ratio has emerged from recent efforts to understand how Newton’s equations appear for the center of mass (CM) of an isolated macroscopic body at finite body temperatures as a first approximation of quantum mechanical equations. It is defined as $Q\equiv R_q/L_0$, where the quantum fluctuation range $R_q$ is the spatial extension of the pure-state CM wave function, whereas $L_0$ stands for the body’s linear size (the space support of the internal bound-state wave function). The two cases $R_q/L_0\lesssim 1$ and $R_q/L_0\gg 1$ roughly correspond to the body’s CM behaving classically or quantum mechanically, respectively. In the present note, we elaborate on this concept and illustrate it through several examples. An important notion following from introduction of the quantum ratio is that the elementary particles (thus, the electron and the photon) are quantum mechanical even when environment-induced decoherence places them into a mixed state. Thus, decoherence and classical state should not be identified. This simple observation, further illustrated by consideration of a few atomic and molecular processes, may have significant implications for the way that quantum mechanics works in biological systems. Full article

It is argued that all physical knowledge ultimately stems from observation and that the simplest possible observation is that an event has happened at a certain space–time location $\overrightarrow{X}=\left(\overrightarrow{x},t\right)$. Considering historic experiments, which have been groundbreaking in the evolution of our modern ideas of matter on the atomic, nuclear, and elementary particle scales, it is shown that such experiments produce as outputs streams of macroscopically observable events which accumulate in the course of time into spatio-temporal patterns of events whose forms allow decisions to be taken concerning conceivable alternatives of explanation. Working towards elucidating the physical and informational characteristics of those elementary observations, we show that these represent hugely amplified images of the initiating micro-events and that the resulting macro-images have a cognitive value of 1 bit and a physical value of $W_{obs}=E_{obs}{\tau }_{obs}\gg h$. In this latter equation, $E_{obs}$ stands for the energy spent in turning the initiating micro-events into macroscopically observable events, ${\tau }_{obs}$ for the lifetimes during which the generated events remain macroscopically observable, and $h$ for Planck’s constant. The relative value $G_{obs}=W_{obs}/h$ finally represents a measure of amplification that was gained in the observation process. Full article

Symmetry breaking is a phenomenon that is observed in various contexts, from the early universe to complex organisms, and it is considered a key puzzle in understanding the emergence of life. The importance of this phenomenon is underscored by the prevalence of enantiomeric amino acids and proteins.The presence of enantiomeric amino acids and proteins highlights its critical role. However, the origin of symmetry breaking has yet to be comprehensively explained, particularly from an energetic standpoint. This article explores a novel approach by considering energy dissipation, specifically lost free energy, as a crucial factor in elucidating symmetry breaking. By conducting a comprehensive thermodynamic analysis applicable across scales, ranging from elementary particles to aggregated structures such as crystals, we present experimental evidence establishing a direct link between nonequilibrium free energy and energy dissipation during the formation of the structures. Results emphasize the pivotal role of energy dissipation, not only as an outcome but as the trigger for symmetry breaking. This insight suggests that understanding the origins of complex systems, from cells to living beings and the universe itself, requires a lens focused on nonequilibrium processes Full article

By the method of molecular dynamics, computer simulation of the processes of isobaric cooling of argon particle systems under initial conditions with a temperature of 150 K at pressure values from 0.1 to 4 MPa to a temperature of 40 K with cooling rates of 10⁸, 10⁹, 10¹⁰, 10¹¹ and 10¹² K/s was performed. As a result of a computer experiment, coordinate arrays of particles were obtained, which were subjected to the procedure of three-dimensional Voronoi partitioning to identify and calculate the number of elementary cells of the crystal structure. Analysis of the structure of argon solid phases formed during isobaric cooling allowed us to deduce an estimated pattern between the concentration of FCC (face-centered cubic) cells in solid argon and the cooling rate from the liquid state. The evaluation of the orientation of the axes of translation of crystal cells in the array of particle coordinates made it possible to classify the solid phases formed as a result of cooling as single crystals, glassy media with the inclusion of clusters and single cells of FCC structures. It was revealed that during isobaric cooling at a rate not exceeding 10⁸ K/s, argon completely crystallizes, at isobaric cooling rates of 10⁹–10¹⁰ K/s, the union of elementary cells of the crystal structure into clusters is observed in glassy argon, and at rates of 10¹¹ K/s and higher at pressures of 1 MPa and lower, solid vitreous phases of argon are formed in which no crystal structure cells are detected. Full article

Super-hot acid leach residue is generated during zinc production in the roasting–leaching–electrowinning route, where both primary and secondary resources are used as feed material. This residue may contain valuable metals, such as lead, zinc, and iron, as well as precious metals, such as gold and silver. Four materials, namely super-hot acid leach residue, a residue formed when super-hot acid leach residue is selectively leached for lead with triethylenetetramine, as well as flotation concentrate, and flotation tailings formed in a selective silver flotation process with super-hot acid leach residue as the feed material were characterized to obtain a deeper understanding of possible further metal extraction. These four materials were characterized for chemical composition, mineralogy, and mineral distribution via chemical analyses, X-ray diffraction, and energy-dispersive scanning electron microscopy, respectively. The scanning electron microscope images showed that the materials have large variations in particle size distribution and composition. The results showed that the main lead phase in super-hot acid leach residue is lead sulfate, whereas it is mostly converted to lead sulfide during the selective lead leaching of the super-hot acid leach residue. The remaining lead sulfate is found in a solid solution with barium sulfate. Extracting lead from super-hot acid leach residue via triethylenetetramine leaching resulted in increased concentrations of gold and silver by 41% and 42%, respectively. The identified silver phases in super-hot acid leach residue may correspond to silver sulfide, silver chloride, and elementary silver, where silver sulfide was the most commonly occurring silver phase. After leaching this selectively for lead with triethylenetetramine, similar silver phases were identified, but silver sulfide and silver chloride occurred to a similar extent. Additionally, silver copper sulfide was detected. The presence of different silver phases might pose a challenge to reaching high silver recovery during leaching as the optimum leaching conditions differ somewhat. Furthermore, elemental sulfur, with a tendency to coat gold and silver particle surfaces, which is indicated to be present in all materials except the silver flotation tailings, may hinder metal extraction. Full article

The presence of particles with a small but finite size, suspended in viscous fluids with low volumetric concentrations, is observed in many applications. The present study focuses on the tridimensional and incompressible lid-driven flow of Newtonian fluids through the application of the immersed boundary method and the Euler–Lagrange approach. These methods are used to numerically predict three-dimensional particle motion by considering nearly neutrally buoyant conditions as well as all relevant elementary processes (drag and lift forces, particle rotation, particle–wall interactions, and coupling between phases). Considering the current stage of the numerical platform, two coupling approaches between phases are considered: one-way and two-way coupling. A single particle is inserted in the cavity after steady-state conditions are achieved. Its three-dimensional motion is obtained from numerical simulations and compared with research data, considering the same conditions, evidently showing that the particle trajectory follows the experimental data until the first collision with a solid surface. After this first contact, there is a deviation between the results, with the two-way coupling results better representing the experimental data than the one-way coupling results. The dimensionless forces’ peaks acting on the particles are associated with the relative velocity of the particle near the wall–particle collision position. In terms of magnitude, in general, the drag force has shown greater influence on the particle’s motion, followed by the rotation-induced and shear-induced lift forces. Finally, a special application is presented, in which 4225 particles are released into the domain and their dynamic is evaluated throughout dimensionless time, showing similar behavior for both couplings between phases, with variations in local concentrations observed in certain regions. The mean square displacement used to quantify the dispersion evolution of the particles showed that the particulate flow reaches an approximately homogeneous distribution from the moment of dimensionless time tU/S = 130. Full article

The advancement of sciences and technologies, economic challenges, increasing expectations, and consumerism result in a radical transformation of health and social care around the globe, characterized by foundational organizational, methodological, and technological paradigm changes. The transformation of the health and social care ecosystems aims at ubiquitously providing personalized, preventive, predictive, participative precision (5P) medicine, considering and understanding the individual’s health status in a comprehensive context from the elementary particle up to society. For designing and implementing such advanced ecosystems, an understanding and correct representation of the structure, function, and relations of their components is inevitable, thereby including the perspectives, principles, and methodologies of all included disciplines. To guarantee consistent and conformant processes and outcomes, the specifications and principles must be based on international standards. A core standard for representing transformed health ecosystems and managing the integration and interoperability of systems, components, specifications, and artifacts is ISO 23903:2021, therefore playing a central role in this publication. Consequently, ISO/TC 215 and CEN/TC 251, both representing the international standardization on health informatics, declared the deployment of ISO 23903:2021 mandatory for all their projects and standards addressing more than one domain. The paper summarizes and concludes the first author’s leading engagement in the evolution of pHealth in Europe and beyond over the last 15 years, discussing the concepts, principles, and standards for designing, implementing, and managing 5P medicine ecosystems. It not only introduces the theoretical foundations of the approach but also exemplifies its deployment in practical projects and solutions regarding interoperability and integration in multi-domain ecosystems. The presented approach enables comprehensive and consistent integration of and interoperability between domains, systems, related actors, specifications, standards, and solutions. That way, it should help overcome the problems and limitations of data-centric approaches, which still dominate projects and products nowadays, and replace them with knowledge-centric, comprehensive, and consistent ones. Full article

Natural systems of units $\left\{U_i\right\}$ need to be overhauled to include the dimensionless coupling constants $\left\{{\mathsf{\alpha }}_{U_i}\right\}$ of the natural forces. Otherwise, they cannot quantify all the forces of nature in a unified manner. Thus, each force must furnish a system of units with at least one dimensional and one dimensionless constant. We revisit three natural systems of units (atomic, cosmological, and Planck). The Planck system is easier to rectify, and we do so in this work. The atomic system discounts $\{G,{\mathsf{\alpha }}_G\}$, thus it cannot account for gravitation. The cosmological system discounts $\{\cancel{h},{\mathsf{\alpha }}_{\cancel{h}}\}$, thus it cannot account for quantum physics. Here, the symbols have their usual meanings; in particular, ${\mathsf{\alpha }}_G$ is the gravitational coupling constant and ${\mathsf{\alpha }}_{\cancel{h}}$ is Dirac’s fine-structure constant. The speed of light c and the impedance of free space $Z_0$ are resistive properties imposed by the vacuum itself; thus, they must be present in all systems of units. The upgraded Planck system with fundamental units $\mathrm{UPS}:=\{c,Z_0,G,{\mathsf{\alpha }}_G,\cancel{h},{\mathsf{\alpha }}_{\cancel{h}},\dots \}$ describes all physical scales in the universe—it is nature’s system of units. As such, it reveals a number of properties, most of which have been encountered previously in seemingly disjoint parts of physics and some of which have been designated as mere coincidences. Based on the UPS results, which relate (sub)atomic scales to the Planck scale and the fine-structure constant to the Higgs field, we can state with confidence that no observed or measured physical properties are coincidental in this universe. Furthermore, we derive from first principles Koide’s $K=2/3$ enigmatic constant and additional analogous quark and vector boson constants. These are formal mathematical proofs that justify a posteriori the use of geometric means in deriving the quark/boson mass ladder. This ladder allows us to also calculate the Higgs couplings to the vector bosons and the Weinberg angle in terms of K only, and many of the “free” parameters of the Standard Model of particle physics were previously expected to be determined only from experiments. Full article