Search Results (34)

(1) Background: Dog-mediated human rabies remains a serious public health problem in Cambodia, partially due to the high abundance of dogs. As most dogs are free-roaming and cannot easily be handled and restrained, the rabies vaccination coverage is very low. Oral rabies vaccination (ORV) could increase the vaccination coverage to levels required for interrupting the transmission cycle. (2) Methods: In this study, the bait acceptance and immunogenicity of a commercially available vaccine bait were tested in local free-roaming dogs in the northern part of Takeo province in Cambodia. (3) Results: In total, 75.4% (515/683) of dogs initially showed interest when offered an egg-flavored bait containing the SPBN GASGAS rabies virus vaccine. Subsequently, 89.9% of these dogs consumed the bait, and almost all of them (98.3%) were considered successfully vaccinated. Blood samples were collected from 50 dogs prior to vaccination. Eight of these fifty dogs tested sero-positive for rabies antibodies (ELISA) and were excluded from follow-up samples. Thirty and ninety days post-vaccination, 91.4% and 68.2% of the relocated vaccinated dogs tested sero-positive, respectively. (4) Conclusions: Bait acceptance and immunogenicity showed similar results as observed in studies with the same vaccine bait conducted in other countries. Hence, ORV seems to be a very promising tool for dog rabies control in Cambodia, which has a large owned but free-roaming dog population. Full article

Rabies remains a preventable yet fatal zoonotic disease and a major public health concern in Bangladesh, which aims to eliminate dog-mediated human rabies by 2030. Despite free availability of post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), adherence to the WHO-recommended PEP regimen remains low. This study assessed PEP compliance and identified determinants of regimen completion among animal-exposed patients. We conducted a hospital-based observational study using secondary data from 457 patients who initiated PEP at the National Rabies Prevention and Control Centre (NRPCC) in Dhaka, from February 2023 to July 2023. Sociodemographic, clinical, and exposure-related factors were analyzed to identify predictors of compliance. Only 17.1% of patients completed the full PEP regimen, including rabies immunoglobulin (RIG) administration for WHO Category III exposures where indicated. Higher adherence was observed among females, individuals aged ≥15 years, lower-income groups, and those residing within 10 km of the treatment center. Exposure-related factors including dog bites, multiple exposures, unprovoked incidents, and appropriate exposure care were also associated with improved compliance. Despite free access, PEP completion remains critically low. Targeted strategies, including decentralized PEP delivery, improved public awareness, and strengthened follow-up systems, are essential to improve adherence and support progress toward rabies elimination by 2030. Full article

Rabies virus (RABV) causes fatal encephalitis once it invades the central nervous system (CNS), and treatment options are extremely limited at this stage. We investigated the recombinant RABV variants SPBN, SPBNGA (glycoprotein substitution R333E), SPBNGAK (R333E plus N194K), SPBNGAS (R333E plus N194S), and TriGAS (three copies of the R333E/N194S glycoprotein). We evaluated their cellular tropism and immune activation in an intracerebral mouse infection model using immunohistochemistry and confocal immunofluorescence. SPBNGAK (R333E/N194K) resulted in mixed neuronal and astrocytic infection and lethal disease. In contrast, the R333E/N194S mutations in the GAS variants were associated with reduced neuronal infection and apparent astrocyte-restricted infection patterns. This tropism shift coincided with microglial activation (allograft inflammatory factor 1, amoeboid transformation) and astrocytic activation (nestin), along with T-cell infiltration and endothelial activation that persisted beyond viral clearance. SPBNGAK-infected astrocytes expressed nestin, while GAS variant-infected astrocytes remained nestin-negative and were rapidly cleared. Intracerebral co-inoculation of astrocytotropic TriGAS with the lethal neurotropic DOG4 strain was associated with survival and a marked reduction in detectable DOG4 neuronal infection. These findings suggest that glycoprotein-mediated astrocyte tropism may be associated with altered immune responses after rabies CNS invasion. While mechanistic causality cannot be inferred, these observations may inform the design of future studies exploring astrocyte-restricted RABV infection in therapeutic-related contexts. Full article

Mexico has not only successfully eliminated dog-mediated human rabies in recent years, but also the last rabies case in a dog infected with the canine variant of the rabies virus was reported in 2016. Mass dog vaccination campaigns were the cornerstone of these achievements. Unfortunately, the rabies virus still circulates in wildlife and, thus, spill-over infections in humans, livestock, and pets, including dogs, still occurs. Especially dogs that cohabit at interfaces shared with wildlife, like shepherd dogs, are at risk. These dogs are often free-roaming and difficult to restrain for vaccination purposes. Oral rabies vaccination (ORV) as an alternative vaccination strategy was tested in several rural villages in Querétaro State, Mexico. Bait acceptance and immunogenicity studies were conducted to test a licensed vaccine bait in terms of attractiveness and if the oral rabies vaccine strain, SPBN GASGAS, was able to induce an adequate immune response in local dogs, respectively. Although the egg(-flavored) bait was less well accepted (68.4%) by the dogs than the two other bait types included in the study, a bait made from boiled intestine segments (71.2%) and a bait with fish meal as an attractant (72.3%), dogs offered the egg bait were more often considered successfully vaccinated. 83.3% of the dogs offered an egg bait seroconverted during the immunogenicity study. Hence, ORV can be a suitable alternative by increasing the overall vaccination coverage of dogs that cannot be easily restrained and handled for vaccination. Full article

Rabies remains a significant global public health concern, causing an estimated 59,000–69,000 human fatalities annually. Despite being entirely preventable through vaccination, rabies continues to impose substantial economic burdens worldwide. This study presents a scoping review of the economic research on rabies to determine overlaps and gaps in knowledge and inform future research strategies. We selected 150 studies (1973–2024) to analyze. The review categorizes the literature based on geographic distribution, species focus, and type of study. Findings indicate that economic studies are disproportionately concentrated in developed countries, such as the United States and parts of Europe, where rabies risk is low, while high-risk regions, particularly in Africa and Asia, remain underrepresented. Most studies focus on dog-mediated rabies, reflecting its dominant role in human transmission, while fewer studies assess the economic impacts of wildlife and livestock-mediated rabies. Case studies and modeling approaches dominate the literature, whereas cost–benefit and cost–effectiveness analyses—critical for informing resource allocation—are limited. The review highlights the need for more economic evaluations in rabies-endemic regions, expanded research on non-dog reservoirs, and broader use of economic methods. Addressing these gaps will be crucial for optimizing rabies control and supporting global initiatives to eliminate dog-mediated rabies by 2030. Full article

Rabies is an important zoonotic disease responsible for 59,000 human deaths worldwide each year. More than a third of these deaths occur in Africa. The first step in controlling rabies is establishing the burden of disease through data analysis and investigating regional risk to help prioritise resources. Here, we evaluated the surveillance data collected over the last decade in Nigeria (2014–2023). A spatio-temporal model was developed using the NIMBLE (1.2.1) package in R to assess outbreak risk. Our analysis found a high risk of canine rabies outbreaks in Plateau state and its surrounding states, as well as increased trends of outbreaks from July to September. The high number of reported canine rabies outbreaks in the North Central region could be due to cross-border transmission or improved reporting in the area. However, this could be confounded by potential reporting bias, with 8 out of 37 states (21.6%) never reporting a single outbreak in the period studied. Improving surveillance efforts will highlight states and regions in need of prioritisation for vaccinations and post-exposure prophylaxis. Using a One Health approach will likely help improve reporting, such as through integrated bite-case management, creating a more sustainable solution for the epidemiology of rabies in Nigeria in the future. Full article

Despite the implementation of various control strategies aimed at eliminating canine-mediated rabies, the disease is still endemic in up to 150 countries across the world. Rabies remains endemic to South Africa, with various reservoir species (both wildlife species and domestic dogs) capable of maintaining rabies infection, and the epidemiology of the disease is yet to be adequately defined. As such, this study used surveillance data collected between 1998 and 2019 from the two diagnostic laboratories in the country for a statistical space–time analysis to determine regions where significant disease clusters could occur. In addition, the robustness of surveillance activities across the country was evaluated through the mathematical evaluation and visualization of testing rates based on the average number of samples tested per species group. In our study, various significant disease clusters were detected for domestic animals, wildlife and livestock. The significant disease clusters for domestic animals and livestock were primarily restricted to eastern South Africa, while the significant disease clusters in wildlife species were detected across northern and western South Africa. Furthermore, the testing rates identified districts from various provinces where surveillance activities could be considered inadequate, consequently influencing the geographical range of the observed clusters. These results could be used to direct intervention campaigns towards high-risk areas, while also allocating the required resources to improve surveillance in the surrounding areas where surveillance was deemed inadequate. Full article

In 1973, the National Rabies Program was created in Brazil through an agreement between the Ministry of Health and Agriculture. Since its beginning, it developed integrated action through access to free post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) for people at risk, dog vaccination campaigns, a joint surveillance system, and awareness. This study aims to describe human rabies in Brazil under the One Health perspective in recent decades, including achievements in the control of dog-mediated cases and challenges in human cases transmitted by wild animals. This paper also explores possible drivers of human rabies in the Northeast Region with half of the cases. The first part of this study was descriptive, presenting data and examples by periods. Statistical analysis was performed in the last period (2010–2022) to explore possible drivers. Dog-mediated human cases decreased from 147 to 0, and dog cases decreased from 4500 to 7. A major challenge is now human cases transmitted by wild animals (bats, non-human primates, and wild canids). Most current human cases occur in municipalities with a tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest biome and a Gini index higher than 0.5. In the multivariable analysis, an association with temperature was estimated (OR = 1.739; CI_95% = 1.181–2.744), and primary healthcare coverage (OR = 0.947; CI_95% = 0.915–0.987) was identified as a protector. It is possible to significantly reduce the number of dog-mediated human rabies cases through the efforts presented. However, Brazil has wildlife variants of the rabies virus circulating. The association of human cases with higher temperatures in the Northeast is a concern with climate change. To reduce human cases transmitted by wild animals, it is important to continue distributing free PEP, especially in remote at-risk areas in the Amazon Region, and to increase awareness. Full article

Rabies is one of the most significant public and veterinary health problems, causing approximately 59,000 human deaths annually in the developing countries of Asia and Africa. The aetiologic agent, a viral species of the Lyssavirus genus, is highly neurotropic and has a wide host range, including terrestrial mammals and several Chiropteran species. The Lyssavirus mokola (MOKV) was first isolated in the late 1960s from organ pools of shrews (Crocidura flavescens manni) in the Mokola forest (Nigeria). To date, at least 30 MOKV isolations have been confirmed, all exclusively from Africa, with 73% from southern Africa. There is limited knowledge about the epidemiology of MOKV, and the reservoir host species is unknown. Here, we report on the molecular characterization of rabies viruses originating from both domestic and African wild cats. A partial region of the lyssavirus genome, encoding the nucleoprotein, was amplified and sequenced. Nucleotide sequence analysis demonstrated that 98% of cats were infected with both the canid and mongoose rabies virus variants, as well as a rare lyssavirus, Lyssavirus mokola, from a domestic cat from Eswatini. Furthermore, the nucleotide sequence divergence between the recently identified MOKV isolate and the historical Lyssavirus mokola isolates ranged from 6.8% to 8.3%. This study further highlights the association between the potential host species of Lyssavirus mokola and the domestic cat as an incidental host, and the important role cats may play in rabies transmission dynamics in the country. Therefore, continuous vaccination of domestic cats against rabies is crucial, even after the elimination of dog-mediated rabies, as spillover related to sylvatic rabies cycles is likely to occur. Full article

Tools and resources that could increase dog vaccination coverage have become increasingly critical towards progressing the goal to eliminate dog-mediated human rabies by 2030. In this regard, dog collars that are fitted during vaccination campaigns could potentially enhance owner participation. The use of dog collars will, however, increase the cost per dog vaccinated and the impact and benefit of this practice should be elucidated. This study evaluated the impact of dog collars by testing the perception and related behavioural influences in communities in Zanzibar. In this cross-sectional investigation—conducted approximately two months after the implementation of a mass dog vaccination (MDV) where dog collars were provided to vaccinated dogs—data were collected from 600 respondents in 56 municipal wards in Zanzibar. Descriptive analyses and logistic regressions were undertaken to determine the impact the collars had on respondents with regards to (i) engaging with the community dogs, (ii) health seeking behaviour after exposure, and (iii) overall participation during dog vaccination campaigns. From the data, it was evident that the collars had a positive impact on the community’s perception of dogs, with 57% of the respondents feeling safer around a dog with a collar, while 66% of the respondents felt less safe around a dog without a collar. Furthermore, the collars had a positive impact on participation during dog vaccination campaigns. Of the 142 respondents who owned dogs, 64% reported that the collars made them more likely to take their dogs for vaccination, and 95% felt that the collar was an important sign of the dog’s vaccination status. This study demonstrated that dog collars could not only improve participation during dog vaccination campaigns, but that they could also play a significant role in the community’s perception of rabies vaccination campaigns and vaccinated dogs in general. Full article

Dog-mediated rabies is endemic in much of Indonesia, including Bali. Most dogs in Bali are free-roaming and often inaccessible for parenteral vaccination without special effort. Oral rabies vaccination (ORV) is considered a promising alternative to increase vaccination coverage in these dogs. This study assessed immunogenicity in local dogs in Bali after oral administration of the highly attenuated third-generation rabies virus vaccine strain SPBN GASGAS. Dogs received the oral rabies vaccine either directly or by being offered an egg-flavored bait that contained a vaccine-loaded sachet. The humoral immune response was then compared with two further groups of dogs: a group that received a parenteral inactivated rabies vaccine and an unvaccinated control group. The animals were bled prior to vaccination and between 27 and 32 days after vaccination. The blood samples were tested for the presence of virus-binding antibodies using ELISA. The seroconversion rate in the three groups of vaccinated dogs did not differ significantly: bait: 88.9%; direct-oral: 94.1%; parenteral: 90.9%; control: 0%. There was no significant quantitative difference in the level of antibodies between orally and parenterally vaccinated dogs. This study confirms that SPBN GASGAS is capable of inducing an adequate immune response comparable to a parenteral vaccine under field conditions in Indonesia. Full article

Vaccination for dogs is essential for controlling rabies and achieving the goal of eliminating dog-mediated rabies globally by 2030. This paper aims to investigate the preferences for public services regarding rabies vaccination, in an effort to optimize the existing rabies vaccination and prevention programs in China. The households investigated had significant preferences for dog rabies vaccination service attributes. The households can be classified into three types: resolute executors (52.13%), mischievous rebels (5.85%), and incentivized compliers (42.02%). The residence, the presence of children in the household, perception of the safety risks, and knowledge of rabies may be sources of heterogeneity. Supportive services on dog rabies vaccination should be made available, such as arranging weekend vaccination services, building mobile vaccination stations, providing home vaccination services, and increasing vaccine supply through multiple channels. Furthermore, multiple measures can be taken to increase rabies vaccination awareness among family members and facilitate dog management innovation to further increase the level of rabies prevention and control. Full article

Rabies is a fatal encephalomyelitis mainly transmitted to humans and other animals by rabid dog bites. Hence, vaccination programs are being instituted for the control of rabies in dogs. Though stray dogs have been vaccinated for years under various programs initiated for control of the disease, the effectiveness of these programs can be ascertained only by assessing the immunity of these dogs. With this in view, a study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of the ongoing mass dog vaccination (MDV) program by the Bengaluru City Municipal Corporation, Bengaluru, India. Whole blood and serum samples (n = 260) from vaccinated stray dogs in 26 wards of 8 corporation zones were tested by rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT) as well as an in-house quantitative indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA) for a humoral response and by interferon-gamma (IFN–γ) ELISA for a cellular response. As determined by the cut-off value of 0.5 IU/mL of serum, 71% and 87% of the samples from vaccinated dogs revealed adequate levels of antibodies presumed to confer protection by RFFIT and iELISA, respectively. The sensitivity and specificity of the iELISA were 100% and 63.3%, respectively. The IFN–γ ELISA revealed adequate cellular response in 50% of the samples. The quantitative iELISA was found to be useful in large-scale seromonitoring of MDV programs to aid in the elimination of dog-mediated rabies. Full article

Epidemiological characteristics of human rabies in mainland China, 2005–2020 were analyzed to evaluate the effect of rabies control in China in recent years. A total of 24,319 human rabies cases were recorded in 2097 counties in 321 cities of 31 provinces in mainland China. Only 202 cases, located in 143 counties, were recorded in 2020, compared with 3305 cases in 992 counties in 2007; however, rabies was still relatively severe in Hunan Province even in 2020. Peak periods occurred in July–November; August was often the month with the most cases. Guizhou, Hunan, Guangdong, and Guangxi Provinces, in the central and southern regions, accounted for 50.0% of the cases in 2005–2020. Cases occurred almost exclusively in rural areas with 96.7% versus 3.3% in urban areas. A paradoxical relative expansion from southern, eastern, and central towards southwestern, northwestern, northern, and northeastern regions was observed along with the overall reduction of cases. Some regions witnessed complete elimination. The male-to-female ratio was 2.33:1; 66.8% of all cases were reported in the 0–10 (13.8%) and 41–70 (53.0%) age groups. Farmers (68.3%), followed by students (12.2), and diaspora children (6.5%) were most frequently involved. Our results provide objective information for the improvement of rabies prevention and control efforts. This will aid policymakers in China and elsewhere achieve the “Zero human deaths from dog-mediated rabies by 2030” global goal. Full article

In many third world countries, where rabies is endemic in dog populations, humans continue to be at risk of contracting the disease. Vaccination is the most effective form of prophylaxis for people, yet it often fails to adequately protect dogs. The most major implications are the costs of post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) after an exposure occurs and the loss of human life and productivity due to early mortality from rabies (about 60,000 deaths annually). The largest rabies death tolls can be found in the world’s poorest regions, where rabies vaccinations for domestic dogs are uncommon and PEP is scarce. Mass vaccination of dogs, neutering programs, patient PEP, strengthening laboratory and human resources, education and awareness, and animal and human rabies surveillance are all common methods used to prevent, control, and ultimately eradicate dog-mediated human rabies. Current rabies control initiatives, however, pay little attention to the role that ecological and socioeconomic variables play in the disease’s occurrence and spread. To help better inform rabies control strategies, we address in this work the ways in which ecological and socioeconomic factors affect the occurrence and spread of rabies. Full article