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Keywords = conventional solar still

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13 pages, 2134 KiB  
Article
Optimising Tubular Solar Still Performance with Gamma Aluminium Nanocoatings: Experimental Insights on Yield, Efficiency, and Economic Viability
by Ajay Kumar Kaviti, Niharika Mudavath and Vineet Singh Sikarwar
Processes 2025, 13(8), 2413; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13082413 - 29 Jul 2025
Viewed by 283
Abstract
This study evaluates the performance of tubular solar stills coated with gamma aluminium nanocoatings at concentrations of 5%, 10%, and 15%, compared to a conventional tubular solar still. This is the first experimental study to apply gamma aluminium nanocoatings on tubular solar stills [...] Read more.
This study evaluates the performance of tubular solar stills coated with gamma aluminium nanocoatings at concentrations of 5%, 10%, and 15%, compared to a conventional tubular solar still. This is the first experimental study to apply gamma aluminium nanocoatings on tubular solar stills (TSS). The stills were tested for three days, from 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m., under consistent conditions with varying water depths of 1 cm, 2 cm, and 3 cm. The results indicated that the 5% nanocoating achieved the highest water yield, producing 2.571 L/m2 with a 1 cm water depth. The 10% coating produced 2.514 L/m2, while the conventional solar still generated 2.286 L/m2. Thermal efficiency was highest on Day 1 for the 5% concentration, reaching 60.9%, followed by 10% concentration at 59.1%, while the 15% concentration showed the lowest efficiency at 33.8%. In terms of cost-effectiveness, the 5% concentration was the most economical, with the lowest cost per litre (CPL) of USD 0.10 and a payback period of 3.03 months. The 10% concentration had a CPL of USD 0.11 and a payback period of 3.33 months, while the 15% concentration had the highest CPL at USD 0.19 and the longest payback period of 5.63 months. Overall, the 5% concentration offered the best balance of water yield, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness. This research highlights γ-Al2O3 as an innovative, cost-effective material for solar distillation, paving the way for sustainable freshwater production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Processes and Systems)
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33 pages, 7605 KiB  
Article
Dynamic Heat Transfer Modelling and Thermal Performance Evaluation for Cadmium Telluride-Based Vacuum Photovoltaic Glazing
by Changyu Qiu, Hongxing Yang and Kaijun Dong
Buildings 2025, 15(15), 2612; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152612 - 23 Jul 2025
Viewed by 257
Abstract
Building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) windows present a viable path towards carbon neutrality in the building sector. However, conventional BIPV windows, such as semi-transparent photovoltaic (STPV) glazings, still suffer from inadequate thermal insulation, which limits their effectiveness across different climate conditions. To address this issue, [...] Read more.
Building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) windows present a viable path towards carbon neutrality in the building sector. However, conventional BIPV windows, such as semi-transparent photovoltaic (STPV) glazings, still suffer from inadequate thermal insulation, which limits their effectiveness across different climate conditions. To address this issue, the cadmium telluride-based vacuum PV glazing has been developed to enhance the thermal performance of BIPV applications. To fully understand the complex thermal behaviour under real-world operational scenarios, this study introduces a one-dimensional transient heat transfer model that can efficiently capture the time-dependent thermal dynamics of this novel glazing system. Based on the numerical solutions using the explicit finite difference method (FDM), the temperature profile of the vacuum PV glazing can be obtained dynamically. Consequently, the heat gain of the semi-transparent vacuum PV glazing can be calculated under time-varying outdoor and indoor conditions. The validated heat transfer model was applied under four different scenarios, viz. summer daytime, summer nighttime, winter daytime, and winter nighttime, to provide a detailed analysis of the dynamic thermal behaviour, including the temperature variation and the energy flow. The dynamic thermal characteristics of the vacuum PV glazing calculated by the transient heat transfer model demonstrate its excellent thermal insulation and solar control capabilities. Moreover, the thermal performance of vacuum PV glazing was compared with a standard double-pane window under various weather conditions of a typical summer day and a typical winter day. The results indicate that the vacuum PV glazing can effectively minimise both heat gain and heat loss. The fluctuation of the inner surface temperature can be controlled within a limited range away from the set point of the indoor room temperature. Therefore, the vacuum PV glazing contributes to stabilising the temperature of the indoor environment despite the fluctuating solar radiation and periodic outdoor temperature. It is suggested that the vacuum PV glazing has the potential to enhance the climate adaptability of BIPV windows under different climate backgrounds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Renewable Energy in Buildings)
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19 pages, 1567 KiB  
Review
Design Efficiency: A Critical Perspective on Testing Methods for Solar-Driven Photothermal Evaporation and Photocatalysis
by Hady Hamza, Maria Vittoria Diamanti, Vanni Lughi, Sergio Rossi and Daniela Meroni
Nanomaterials 2025, 15(14), 1121; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15141121 - 18 Jul 2025
Viewed by 372
Abstract
Water scarcity is a growing global challenge, intensified by climate change, seawater intrusion, and pollution. While conventional desalination methods are energy-intensive, solar-driven interfacial evaporators offer a promising low-energy solution by leveraging solar energy for water evaporation, with the resulting steam condensed into purified [...] Read more.
Water scarcity is a growing global challenge, intensified by climate change, seawater intrusion, and pollution. While conventional desalination methods are energy-intensive, solar-driven interfacial evaporators offer a promising low-energy solution by leveraging solar energy for water evaporation, with the resulting steam condensed into purified water. Despite advancements, challenges persist, particularly in addressing volatile contaminants and biofouling, which can compromise long-term performance. The integration of photocatalysts into solar-driven interfacial evaporators has been proposed as a solution, enabling pollutant degradation and microbial inactivation while enhancing water transport and self-cleaning properties. This review critically assesses testing methodologies for solar-driven interfacial evaporators incorporating both photothermal and photocatalytic functions. While previous studies have examined materials and system design, the added complexity of photocatalysis necessitates new testing approaches. First, solar still setups are analyzed, particularly concentrating on the selection of materials and geometry for the transparent cover and water-collecting surfaces. Then, performance evaluation tests are discussed, with focus on the types of tested pollutants and analytical techniques. Finally, key challenges are presented, providing insights for future advancements in sustainable water purification. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Degradation of Pollutants by Nanostructured Photocatalysts)
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28 pages, 2931 KiB  
Review
Remote Sensing-Based Phenology of Dryland Vegetation: Contributions and Perspectives in the Southern Hemisphere
by Andeise Cerqueira Dutra, Ankur Srivastava, Khalil Ali Ganem, Egidio Arai, Alfredo Huete and Yosio Edemir Shimabukuro
Remote Sens. 2025, 17(14), 2503; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs17142503 - 18 Jul 2025
Viewed by 447
Abstract
Leaf phenology is key to ecosystem functioning by regulating carbon, water, and energy fluxes and influencing vegetation productivity. Yet, detecting land surface phenology (LSP) in drylands using remote sensing remains particularly challenging due to sparse and heterogeneous vegetation cover, high spatiotemporal variability, and [...] Read more.
Leaf phenology is key to ecosystem functioning by regulating carbon, water, and energy fluxes and influencing vegetation productivity. Yet, detecting land surface phenology (LSP) in drylands using remote sensing remains particularly challenging due to sparse and heterogeneous vegetation cover, high spatiotemporal variability, and complex spectral signals. Unlike the Northern Hemisphere, these challenges are further compounded in the Southern Hemisphere (SH), where several regions experience year-round moderate temperatures. When combined with irregular rainfall, this leads to highly variable vegetation activity throughout the year. However, LSP dynamics in the SH remain poorly understood. This study presents a review of remote sensing-based phenology research in drylands, integrating (i) a synthesis of global methodological advances and (ii) a systematic analysis of peer-reviewed studies published from 2015 through April 2025 focused on SH drylands. This review reveals a research landscape still dominated by conventional vegetation indices (e.g., NDVI) and moderate-spatial-resolution sensors (e.g., MODIS), though a gradual shift toward higher-resolution sensors such as PlanetScope and Sentinel-2 has emerged since 2020. Despite the widespread use of start- and end-of-season metrics, their accuracy varies greatly, especially in heterogeneous landscapes. Yet, advanced products such as solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence or the fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation were rarely employed. Gaps remain in the representation of hyperarid zones, grass- and shrub-dominated landscapes, and large regions of Africa and South America. Our findings highlight the need for multi-sensor approaches and expanded field validation to improve phenological assessments in dryland environments. The accurate differentiation of vegetation responses in LSP is essential not only for refining phenological metrics but also for enabling more realistic assessments of ecosystem functioning in the context of climate change and its impact on vegetation dynamics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Remote Sensing in Agriculture and Vegetation)
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11 pages, 3956 KiB  
Proceeding Paper
Implementation of Bidirectional Converter with Asymmetrical Half-Bridge Converter Based on an SRM Drive Using PV for Electric Vehicles
by Ramabadran Ramaprabha, Ethirajan Anjana, Sureshkumar Hariprasath, Sulaimon Mohammed Ashik, Medarametala Venkata Sai Kiran and Tikarey Yoganand Navinsai Kaarthik
Eng. Proc. 2025, 93(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2025093015 - 2 Jul 2025
Viewed by 218
Abstract
Due to the high demand for fuel efficiency, electric vehicles have come into the picture, as they only use batteries to power the vehicle. This requires constant charging of the batteries at charging stations, which are costly and impractical to install. But it [...] Read more.
Due to the high demand for fuel efficiency, electric vehicles have come into the picture, as they only use batteries to power the vehicle. This requires constant charging of the batteries at charging stations, which are costly and impractical to install. But it is possible to install charging stations by making use of photovoltaic (PV) cells and demagnetization currents to self-charge batteries under stand-still conditions. The design of a bidirectional converter with asymmetrical half-bridge converter based on a switched reluctance motor (SRM) drive, using PV for electric vehicles, is implemented in this paper. It consists of developing a control unit (GCU), Li-ion battery pack, and photovoltaic (PV) solar cells that are integrated with a bidirectional converter and asymmetrical half-bridge converter (AHBC) to provide power to the SRM drive. The solar-assisted SRM drive can be operated in either the motoring mode or charging mode. In the motoring-mode GCU, the battery or PV energy can be used in any combination to power the SRM. In the charging-mode PV, the GCU and AC grids are used to charge the battery under stand-still conditions. This work helps in the self-charging of batteries using either the GCU or PV cells, as well as aids in the improvement in the performance characteristics. Also, this work compares the performance metrics for the proposed system and conventional system. The performance of the drive system using PV cells/GCU is evaluated and verified through MatLab/Simulink and experimental results. Full article
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14 pages, 3342 KiB  
Article
Controlling Crystallization of Aqueous-Processed Planar Perovskite Films via Sodium Dodecyl Sulfonate Surfactant Modulation
by Na Zheng, Cunyun Xu, Xiaofeng He, Gaobo Xu, Jiancheng You, Zhongjun Dai, Han Jiang, Qianqian Zhang and Qunliang Song
Molecules 2025, 30(10), 2146; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30102146 - 13 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 403
Abstract
Solution processing represents a widely adopted methodology for perovskite solar cell (PSC) fabrication. Nevertheless, the prevalent use of toxic solvents and anti-solvents in conventional approaches presents significant challenges for PSC commercialization. Water, as an environmentally benign solvent with exceptional Pb(NO3)2 [...] Read more.
Solution processing represents a widely adopted methodology for perovskite solar cell (PSC) fabrication. Nevertheless, the prevalent use of toxic solvents and anti-solvents in conventional approaches presents significant challenges for PSC commercialization. Water, as an environmentally benign solvent with exceptional Pb(NO3)2 solubility, offers a promising alternative for perovskite film preparation. However, the sluggish conversion kinetics of Pb(NO3)2 to perovskite often results in morphological imperfections and incomplete conversion, particularly detrimental to planar inverted PSCs derived from aqueous solutions, which currently exhibit limited power conversion efficiencies (PCE) of approximately 6%. To mitigate the Ostwald ripening effect induced by slow reaction kinetics and enhance the conversion efficiency of deep-layer Pb(NO3)2 and PbI2, this study proposes a strategy of increasing the pore size in porous Pb(NO3)2 structures. Through the incorporation of sodium dodecyl sulfonate (SDS) surfactant into the Pb(NO3)2 precursor solution, we successfully fabricated high-quality perovskite films. Comprehensive characterization revealed that SDS doping effectively modified the surface properties of Pb(NO3)2 films, accelerating their conversion to perovskite. The optimized PSCs based on SDS-modified perovskite films demonstrated improved energy level alignment, enhanced charge carrier extraction, and suppressed non-radiative recombination. Consequently, the PCE of planar inverted aqueous PSCs increased significantly from 12.27% (control devices) to 14.82% following surfactant modification. After being stored in a nitrogen glove box for 800 h, the performance of the device still remained above 90% of its original level. It can still maintain 60% of its original performance after a 100 h heating aging test at 80 degrees. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry Innovatives in Perovskite Based Materials)
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11 pages, 1741 KiB  
Article
An Electricity Market Model with Intermittent Power
by Rögnvaldur Hannesson
Energies 2025, 18(6), 1435; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18061435 - 14 Mar 2025
Viewed by 385
Abstract
A competitive electricity market model is used to analyze the effects of replacing conventional base load power with an intermittent power supply. The model is a conceptual one and uses linear demand curves with a triangular probability distribution. In a base reference case, [...] Read more.
A competitive electricity market model is used to analyze the effects of replacing conventional base load power with an intermittent power supply. The model is a conceptual one and uses linear demand curves with a triangular probability distribution. In a base reference case, there are two types of providers of electricity, base load providers and peak load providers, each with a constant marginal cost. Prices are determined by the highest marginal cost of the active providers or by what the market can bear. The production capacity of each type of provider is determined by rents being equal to fixed costs. This reference case is compared to a case where base load providers have been replaced by intermittent solar and wind energy, with peak load providers still active. Despite lower costs, intermittent power is likely to result in higher and more volatile prices of electricity. Lower electricity prices could result if conventional baseload power is sufficiently expensive. The implications of changes in the availability of intermittent power are also analyzed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy and Environmental Economics for a Sustainable Future)
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23 pages, 1539 KiB  
Article
Stakeholders’ Perceptions of the Peer-to-Peer Energy Trading Model Using Blockchain Technology in Indonesia
by Faisal Yusuf, Riri Fitri Sari, Purnomo Yusgiantoro and Tri Edhi Budhi Soesilo
Energies 2024, 17(19), 4956; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17194956 - 3 Oct 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2439
Abstract
The energy transition toward Net Zero Emission by 2060 hinges on the renewable energy power plants in Indonesia. Good practices in several countries suggest a peer-to-peer (P2P) energy trading system using blockchain technology, supported by renewable energy (solar panels), an innovation to provide [...] Read more.
The energy transition toward Net Zero Emission by 2060 hinges on the renewable energy power plants in Indonesia. Good practices in several countries suggest a peer-to-peer (P2P) energy trading system using blockchain technology, supported by renewable energy (solar panels), an innovation to provide equal access to sustainable electricity while reducing the impact of climate change. The P2P energy trading concept has a higher social potential than the conventional electricity buying and selling approach, such as that of PLN (the state-owned electricity company in Indonesia), which applies the network management concept but does not have a sharing element. This model implements a solar-powered mini-grid system and produces a smart contract that facilitates electricity network users to buy, sell, and trade electricity in rural areas via smartphones. This study aims to measure the stakeholders’ perceptions of the peer-to-peer (P2P) energy trading model using blockchain technology in the Gumelar District, Banyumas Regency, Central Java Province, Indonesia. The stakeholders in question are representatives of Households (producers and consumers), Government, State Electricity Company (PLN), Non-Governmental Organizations, Private Sector and Academician. Measurement of perception in this study used a questionnaire approach with a Likert scale. The results of filling out the questionnaire were analyzed using four methods: IFE/EFE matrix; IE matrix; SWOT matrix; and SPACE matrix to assess the results and their suitability to each other. The results of the stakeholder perception assessment show that there are 44 internal factors and 33 external factors that can influence this model. We obtained an IFE and EFE score of 2.92 and 2.83 for the internal and external results using the IE matrix. These place the model in quadrant V, meaning the P2P model can survive in the long term to generate profits. Based on the SWOT analysis results, this model is located at the coordinate point −0.40, 0.31, placing it in quadrant II. This means that the P2P model is in a competitive situation and faces threats but still has internal strengths. Based on the SPACE matrix, stakeholder perception states that the P2P model is at coordinate point 1, −0.3. This shows that the P2P model has the potential to be a competitive advantage in its type of activity that continues to grow. In conclusion, our findings show that stakeholders’ perceptions of P2P models using blockchain technology can be implemented effectively and provide social, economic, and environmental incentives. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section C: Energy Economics and Policy)
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18 pages, 9136 KiB  
Article
Ferrer House at Rocafort, an Early Case of Brise-Soleil’s Design for the Mediterranean Region in Valencia
by Antonio Gomez-Gil and Joseph Cabeza-Lainez
Designs 2024, 8(5), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/designs8050096 - 27 Sep 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1340
Abstract
In 1944, the architect Antonio Gómez Davó designed and built a new house for Mr. Ferrer at Rocafort in the suburbs of Valencia (Spain). In this same year, Europe, America, Russia and even Japan were still at war and Spain was recovering from [...] Read more.
In 1944, the architect Antonio Gómez Davó designed and built a new house for Mr. Ferrer at Rocafort in the suburbs of Valencia (Spain). In this same year, Europe, America, Russia and even Japan were still at war and Spain was recovering from its own intestine conflict. Therefore, architectural innovations and influences were scarce, as was the circulation of specialized journals on the matter. Still, many creations were occurring, like ceramic vaults and the brise-soleil; further, the architect Le Corbusier had stated his profound nostalgia for the Mediterranean, a sea that he had come to appreciate in his travels to the “East”. In the case of Gómez Davó, having been born and raised in a prominent family of Valencia, he could not remain indifferent to the design features that appeared in the vernacular architecture of the area, especially the type of inclined louvers of Arabic descent, that covered bow-windows and balconies and which have come to be known in Spain as the Majorcan louvers; these are currently even employed by prominent architects like Rafael Moneo at the extension of the Painter Miro Foundation. However, with so many difficult circumstances surrounding him, Gómez Davó could not get to the point of producing a ground-breaking design based on solar assumptions for the whole façade of the house he was building; instead, when providing an entrance porch apt for living life in the pure Mediterranean tradition, he ventured to construct a surprising perforated wall oriented to the south in order to control radiation in the winter and provide shade in the summer while affording excellent light and superb conditions of ventilation. By means of self-devised simulation tools, we have analyzed the conditions of the house and especially of his innovative brise-soleil, which are at times reminiscent of Alvar Aalto’s solutions for day-lit roofs, and which he intuitively adapted to the latitude of Valencia with the help of incipient notions of solar geometry. By outlining such unknown and bold precedent and assessing the house’s proper climatic performance, we contribute to revitalizing the early and daring pioneers of solar architecture in peripheral Spain and Europe during the birth of critic regionalism, a fact often disregarded in the conventional history of Modern Architecture. Full article
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13 pages, 6786 KiB  
Article
Energy-Efficient Smart Window Based on a Thermochromic Hydrogel with Adjustable Critical Response Temperature and High Solar Modulation Ability
by Meng Sun, Hui Sun, Ruoyu Wei, Wenqing Li, Jinlai Lai, Ye Tian and Miao Li
Gels 2024, 10(8), 494; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels10080494 - 25 Jul 2024
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2473
Abstract
Thermochromic smart windows realize an intelligent response to changes in environmental temperature through reversible physical phase transitions. They complete a real-time adjustment of solar transmittance, create a livable indoor temperature for humans, and reduce the energy consumption of buildings. Nevertheless, conventional materials that [...] Read more.
Thermochromic smart windows realize an intelligent response to changes in environmental temperature through reversible physical phase transitions. They complete a real-time adjustment of solar transmittance, create a livable indoor temperature for humans, and reduce the energy consumption of buildings. Nevertheless, conventional materials that are used to prepare thermochromic smart windows face challenges, including fixed transition temperatures, limited solar modulation capabilities, and inadequate mechanical properties. In this study, a novel thermochromic hydrogel was synthesized from 2-hydroxy-3-butoxypropyl hydroxyethyl celluloses (HBPEC) and poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) by using a simple one-step low-temperature polymerization method. The HBPEC/PNIPAM hydrogel demonstrates a wide response temperature (24.1–33.2 °C), high light transmittance (Tlum = 87.5%), excellent solar modulation (ΔTsol = 71.2%), and robust mechanical properties. HBPEC is a functional material that can be used to adjust the lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of the smart window over a wide range by changing the degree of substitution (DS) of the butoxy group in its structure. In addition, the use of HBPEC effectively improves the light transmittance and mechanical properties of the hydrogels. After 100 heating and cooling cycles, the hydrogel still has excellent stability. Furthermore, indoor simulation experiments show that HBPEC/PNIPAM hydrogel smart windows have better indoor temperature regulation capabilities than traditional windows, making these smart windows potential candidates for energy-saving building materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Gel Analysis and Characterization)
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11 pages, 3988 KiB  
Article
Preparation of Highly Efficient and Stable All-Inorganic CsPbBr3 Perovskite Solar Cells Using Pre-Crystallization Multi-Step Spin-Coating Method
by Yulong Zhang, Zhaoyi Jiang, Jincheng Li, Guanxiong Meng, Jiajun Guo and Weijia Zhang
Coatings 2024, 14(7), 918; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14070918 - 22 Jul 2024
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2205
Abstract
All-inorganic CsPbBr3 perovskite solar cells have garnered extensive attention in the photovoltaic domain due to their remarkable environmental stability. Nevertheless, CsPbBr3 prepared using the conventional sequential deposition method suffers from issues such as inferior crystallinity, low phase purity, and poor film [...] Read more.
All-inorganic CsPbBr3 perovskite solar cells have garnered extensive attention in the photovoltaic domain due to their remarkable environmental stability. Nevertheless, CsPbBr3 prepared using the conventional sequential deposition method suffers from issues such as inferior crystallinity, low phase purity, and poor film morphology. Herein, we propose a pre-crystallization methodology by introducing a minute quantity of CsBr into the PbBr2 precursor solution to generate a small amount of CsPb2Br5 crystals within the PbBr2 film, leading to a porous PbBr2 film with enhanced crystallinity. Under the influence of more pores and CsPb2Br5 crystals as nucleation sites for inducing growth, a CsPbBr3 film with a larger crystal size, lower grain boundary density, stronger crystallinity, and higher phase purity is formed. Compared with untreated devices, photovoltaic devices prepared using the pre-crystallization method achieved a champion photovoltaic conversion efficiency (PCE) of 8.62%. Furthermore, pre-crystallized devices demonstrate higher stability than untreated ones and can still retain 94% of the original PCE after being exposed to air for 1000 h without encapsulating. Full article
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72 pages, 21240 KiB  
Review
Reactor and Plant Designs for the Solar Photosynthesis of Fuels
by Simge Naz Degerli, Alice Gramegna, Matteo Tommasi, Gianguido Ramis and Ilenia Rossetti
Energies 2024, 17(13), 3112; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17133112 - 24 Jun 2024
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2284
Abstract
Solar-boosted photo-technology stands out as a powerful strategy for photosynthesis and photocatalytic processes due to its minimal energy requirements, cost-effectiveness and operation under milder, environmentally friendly conditions compared to conventional thermocatalytic options. The design and development of photocatalysts have received a great deal [...] Read more.
Solar-boosted photo-technology stands out as a powerful strategy for photosynthesis and photocatalytic processes due to its minimal energy requirements, cost-effectiveness and operation under milder, environmentally friendly conditions compared to conventional thermocatalytic options. The design and development of photocatalysts have received a great deal of attention, whereas photoreactor development must be studied deeper to enable the design of efficient devices for practical exploitation. Furthermore, scale-up issues are important for this application, since light distribution through the photoreactor is a concurrent factor. This review represents a comprehensive study on the development of photoreactors to be used mainly for the photoreduction of CO2 to fuels, but with concepts easily transferable to other photosynthetic applications such as ammonia synthesis and water splitting, or wastewater treatment, photovoltaics combined to photoreactors, etc. The primary categories of photoreactors are thoroughly examined. It is also explained which parameters influence the design of a photoreactor and next-generation high-pressure photoreactors are also discussed. Last but not least, current technologies for solar concentrators are recalled, considering their possible integration within the photoreactor. While many reviews deal with photocatalytic materials, in the authors’ view, photoreactors with significant scale and their merged devices with solar concentrators are still unexploited solutions. These are the key to boost the efficiency of these processes towards commercial viability; thus, the aim of this review is to summarise the main findings on solar photoreactors for the photoreduction of CO2 and for related applications. Full article
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13 pages, 4860 KiB  
Article
Development of Macro-Encapsulated Phase-Change Material Using Composite of NaCl-Al2O3 with Characteristics of Self-Standing
by Shenghao Liao, Xin Zhou, Xiaoyu Chen, Zhuoyu Li, Seiji Yamashita, Chaoyang Zhang and Hideki Kita
Processes 2024, 12(6), 1123; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12061123 - 29 May 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1815
Abstract
Developing thermal storage materials is crucial for the efficient recovery of thermal energy. Salt-based phase-change materials have been widely studied. Despite their high thermal storage density and low cost, they still face issues such as low thermal conductivity and easy leaks. Therefore, a [...] Read more.
Developing thermal storage materials is crucial for the efficient recovery of thermal energy. Salt-based phase-change materials have been widely studied. Despite their high thermal storage density and low cost, they still face issues such as low thermal conductivity and easy leaks. Therefore, a new type of NaCl-Al2O3@SiC@Al2O3 macrocapsule was developed to address these drawbacks, and it exhibited excellent rapid heat storage and release capabilities and was extremely stable, significantly reducing the risk of leakage at high temperatures for industrial waste heat recovery and in concentrated solar power systems above 800 °C. Thermal storage macrocapsules consisted of a double-layer encapsulation of silicon carbide and alumina and a self-standing core of NaCl-Al2O3. After enduring over 1000 h at a high temperature of 850 °C, the encapsulated phase-change material exhibited an extremely low weight loss rate of less than 5% compared with NaCl@Al2O3 and NaCl-Al2O3@Al2O3 macrocapsules, for which the weight loss rate was reduced by 25% and 10%, respectively, proving their excellent leakage prevention. The SiC powder layer, serving as an intermediate coating, further prevented leakage, while the use of Al2O3 ceramics for encapsulation enhanced the overall mechanical strength. It was innovatively discovered that the Al2O3 particles formed a network structure around the molten NaCl, playing an important role in maintaining the shape and preventing leakage of the composite thermal storage phase-change material. Furthermore, the addition of Al2O3 significantly enhanced the rapid heat storage and release rate of NaCl-Al2O3 compared to pure NaCl. This encapsulated phase-change material demonstrated outstanding durability and rapid heat storage and release performance, offering an innovative approach to the application of salt phase-change materials in the field of high temperature rapid heat storage and release and encapsulating NaCl as a high-temperature thermal storage material in a packed bed system. Compared with conventional salt-based phase-change materials, the developed product is expected to significantly improve the reliability and thermal efficiency of thermal storage systems. Full article
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24 pages, 3200 KiB  
Article
Energy and Economic Advantages of Using Solar Stills for Renewable Energy-Based Multi-Generation of Power and Hydrogen for Residential Buildings
by Armida Bahrami, Fatemeh Soltanifar, Pourya Fallahi, Sara S. Meschi and Ali Sohani
Buildings 2024, 14(4), 1041; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14041041 - 8 Apr 2024
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2480
Abstract
The multi-generation systems with simultaneous production of power by renewable energy, in addition to polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyzer and fuel cell (PEMFC-PEMEC) energy storage, have become more and more popular over the past few years. The fresh water provision for PEMECs in such [...] Read more.
The multi-generation systems with simultaneous production of power by renewable energy, in addition to polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyzer and fuel cell (PEMFC-PEMEC) energy storage, have become more and more popular over the past few years. The fresh water provision for PEMECs in such systems is taken into account as one of the main challenges for them, where conventional desalination technologies such as reverse osmosis (RO) and mechanical vapor compression (MVC) impose high electricity consumption and costs. Taking this point into consideration, as a novelty, solar still (ST) desalination is applied as an alternative to RO and MVC for better techno-economic justifiability. The comparison, made for a residential building complex in Hawaii in the US as the case study demonstrated much higher technical and economic benefits when using ST compared with both MVC and RO. The photovoltaic (PV) installed capacity decreased by 11.6 and 7.3 kW compared with MVC and RO, while the size of the electrolyzer declined by 9.44 and 6.13%, and the hydrogen storage tank became 522.1 and 319.3 m3 smaller, respectively. Thanks to the considerable drop in the purchase price of components, the payback period (PBP) dropped by 3.109 years compared with MVC and 2.801 years compared with RO, which is significant. Moreover, the conducted parametric study implied the high technical and economic viability of the system with ST for a wide range of building loads, including high values. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable and Smart Energy Systems in the Built Environment)
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11 pages, 5980 KiB  
Article
Method and Equipment for Reducing the Efficiency Degradation of Monocrystalline Passivated Emitter and Rear Cells
by Weitao Fan, Honglie Shen, Xin Zhang and Hong Pan
Energies 2024, 17(7), 1550; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17071550 - 23 Mar 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1168
Abstract
Infrared soldering as a step in module encapsulation, which would cause light-induced degradation (LID) and light- and elevated-temperature-induced degradation (LeTID) effects on solar cells, may cause efficiency mixing among solar cells that were originally in the same grade within the module after soldering. [...] Read more.
Infrared soldering as a step in module encapsulation, which would cause light-induced degradation (LID) and light- and elevated-temperature-induced degradation (LeTID) effects on solar cells, may cause efficiency mixing among solar cells that were originally in the same grade within the module after soldering. Furthermore, the problem of bright and dark regions would appear, which would result in a decrease in the CTM value. Current injection is considered to be one of the effective methods to solve the above problem. However, after the current injection treatment, there is still a 10% probability of the appearance of bright and dark regions in modules. In this work, we first adopted the conventional current injection process in monocrystalline passivated emitter and rear cells (PERCs). The effects of injected currents, temperature and time were systematically optimized, and cells with or without the current injection under the optimal parameters were illuminated with 1 sun at 85 °C for 25 h. Secondly, a piece of equipment was developed to further stabilize the performance of solar cells and improve the CTM value. The results showed that the best current injection parameters were a temperature of 185 °C, an injected current of 11 A and an injection time of 770 s. Compared with the cells without any pretreatment, the relative changes in the η, Voc, Isc and FF of the cells pretreated with the optimal conditions mentioned above were 0.23%, 0.08%, 0.02% and 0.08% larger, respectively, after 25 h of degradation. Then, solar cells processed by current injection were processed with our equipment, and the probability of a problem occurring was reduced from 10% to 2%. Meanwhile, the CTM value increased by 0.4%. Finally, a balance mechanism between H0 and H0-X has been proposed to explain the mechanism of the equipment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section A2: Solar Energy and Photovoltaic Systems)
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