Search Results (75)

Women’s greater vulnerability to intrusive memories following trauma may be partially explained by the influence of ovarian hormones on memory consolidation processes. Contributing to accumulating research examining the influence of ovarian hormones on the development of intrusive memories, we hypothesized that cyclical fluctuations in estradiol and progesterone, not merely absolute levels, contribute to this risk. We further hypothesized that hormonal contraceptives, which effectively eliminate fluctuations and keep ovarian hormones at chronic low levels, can convey protective effects against memory intrusions following analogue trauma exposure. We examined the development of memory intrusions following trauma film stressor exposure among men (n = 27), hormonal contraceptive (HC) users (n = 41), and naturally cycling (NC) women in the early follicular (EF; n = 24), late follicular (n = 20), ovulatory window (n = 14), and luteal phases (n = 21) for 5 days to assess whether low ovarian hormone levels convey a protective effect for women. Contrary to hypotheses, this study found no support for this prospect; rather, exposure to stressors during the window around ovulation increased the risk for more frequent intrusive memories. Enhanced stress responsivity may have particular effects on ovulation, promoting evolutionary fitness. Full article

Endometriosis is the extrauterine engraftment of endometrium-like tissue, causing chronic pain. Complex sensory–vascular–immune interactions, including growth factors, cytokines, and neuropeptides, are implicated in its pathophysiology, but the mechanisms remain unknown. Here, epidermal growth factor (EGF), vascular endothelial growth factor, interleukins (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8), macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), calcitonin gene-related peptide, and somatostatin were measured in the serum of endometriosis patients with different disease severities, menstruation cycle- and pharmacotherapy-related hormonal status compared with controls. Mediator levels in deep-infiltrating rectosigmoid nodules were also compared with those in non-endometriotic colon tissues. Pain was assessed by the visual analogue scale. Serum EGF was significantly lower in mild endometriosis and in the secretory phase. MIF and IL-6 were higher in stage I–IV endometriosis, with MIF also higher in the secretory phase and in patients not receiving oral contraceptives. Somatostatin was lower in mild endometriosis than that in healthy individuals and the severe endometriosis group. No tissue-level differences were found. A strong positive correlation between serum EGF and somatostatin levels and dysmenorrhea and dysuria was detected in mild cases. It is concluded that certain serum alterations may be related to severity- and hormone status-dependent endometriosis mechanisms, but their diagnostic/prognostic value seems to be limited due to variability and lack of specificity. Full article

Endometriosis is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by the presence of ectopic endometrial tissue, mainly in the pelvic cavity. It primarily affects women of reproductive age and is associated with significant morbidity, particularly chronic pelvic pain and infertility. Despite its high prevalence, diagnosis is often delayed, contributing to prolonged suffering and increased healthcare burden. This review examines the management of endometriosis in Primary Care, focusing on clinical presentation, risk factors, diagnostic approaches, and therapeutic options. A comprehensive bibliographic search was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, and Uptodate, including evidence-based clinical guidelines and literature up to January 2025. Women diagnosed with endometriosis in Primary Care are typically of reproductive age, with symptoms including dysmenorrhea, dyspareunia, and abnormal uterine bleeding. Risk factors include early menarche, low birth weight, short menstrual cycles, and family history. Transvaginal ultrasound is the recommended first-line imaging tool. Treatment includes analgesics, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and hormonal therapies such as combined oral contraceptives or progestins. Non-pharmacological interventions, including dietary modifications and psychological support, are also relevant. Early identification in Primary Care is key to improving out-comes. Enhancing awareness among healthcare providers and promoting multidisciplinary management are essential to optimize care and reduce diagnostic delays. Full article

The heart rate variability (HRV), influenced by female sex hormone fluctuations, is an indicator of athletes’ adaptation. This case study explores HRV responses over 18 months across a natural menstrual cycle (MC) and during oral contraceptive (OC) use in two Olympic female swimmers. HRV measurements—including mean heart rate (HR); root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD); and frequency-domain indices—were collected at rest in supine (SU) and standing (ST) positions across two competitive seasons. Nocturnal HR and RMSSD were assessed using the Ōura^® ring. MC and OC phases were identified through specific tracking, and training load was controlled. In both athletes, resting HR was lower during bleeding phases, increasing from menstruation to the luteal phase (MC) and from withdrawal to active pill phases (OC). In the ST position, RMSSD was higher but decreased throughout the phases. Nocturnal measurements confirmed these trends. Overall, findings suggest a phase-related parasympathetic overactivity shift. This study provides novel insights into HRV responses across hormonal cycles in elite female athletes, which present unique characteristics. Such monitoring tools may support a data-informed approach to guide and periodize training more effectively. Full article

The issue of stray cats and dogs is a global concern with considerable implications for animal welfare and public health. This review aims to provide an updated and comprehensive analysis of non-surgical contraceptive methods tested in studies controlled in vivo in feline and canine females. Immunocontraception via vaccination against gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), the luteinizing hormone receptor, zona pellucida proteins, and sperm, or use of viral-vectored delivery, is yet developing. Hormonal treatment (progestins, androgens, or GnRH) analogs act directly to block the reproductive axis. However, it produced essential side effects. Analogs of kisspeptin, non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs such as firocoxib, and delivery of cytotoxins to the pituitary have shown non-conclusive results. Additional methods have also been tested, such as intraovarian injection of necrosing compounds or intravaginal and intrauterine devices. At present, neither of these methods offers permanent sterility that can replace surgical sterilization techniques. To our knowledge, none are currently authorized by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) or the European Medicines Agency (EMA) for contraceptive methods or sterilization of cats or dogs. Therefore, it is necessary to continue the development of a compound that warrants the sterility of cats and dogs. Full article

This systematic review aims to evaluate the impact of hormonal fluctuations during the menstrual cycle on the performance of female athletes. Methods: Following PRISMA guidelines, a comprehensive search was conducted in Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed databases using the keywords: (“Menstrual cycle”) AND (“performance” OR “female athlete” OR “sport” AND NOT “male”); AND NOT (“contraceptive”). Inclusion criteria focused on original studies published between 2013 and 2023, in English or Spanish, involving eumenorrheic female athletes without menstrual disorders or oral contraceptive use. The studies were critically assessed using the McMaster scientific review method. Results: Thirteen eligible articles were reviewed, comprising a total sample of 152 athletes. Significant findings include increased flexibility during the ovulatory phase and enhanced aerobic and anaerobic capacities in the luteal phase. Additionally, the menstrual and premenstrual phases notably influenced aerobic and anaerobic capacities, performance perception, symptomatology, and exercise-induced muscle damage. Conclusion: Hormonal fluctuations can impact female athletes’ performance. However, further research is warranted due to inconsistent results stemming from variations in cycle phases studied, lack of standardized methodologies, small sample sizes, and short observation periods. Full article

Background: The global mHealth market is growing at an unprecedented rate and is expected to reach an estimated value of $187.7 billion by 2033, with many apps now addressing women’s health and the menstrual cycle. This scoping review (ScR) aimed to comprehensively assess and describe the existing peer-reviewed literature on motivations for use, user experience, and reproductive health app quality. Methods: The protocol and review were conducted according to the JBI methodology and PRISMA guidelines for scoping reviews. Studies published in English since 2010 were included and searched in MEDLINE, Embase (Ovid platform), Scopus (Elsevier), ACM Digital Library, and IEEE Xplore. Studies were screened independently by two reviewers and the data explored through charting and synthesis. Results: Data were extracted from 58 papers published in English between 2014 and 2023. Several major themes related to motivations for app use, user experience, and app quality were identified and are reported on. Conclusions: Users were motivated to engage in reproductive health apps for education, contraception, and conception. This ScR identified several benefits, such as improving menstrual health literacy. We also identified limitations of current reproductive health apps that adversely affect user experience. Recommendations for future studies include increasing diversity, exploring perspectives of different user groups, and investigating the role healthcare providers may have in app development and patient education. Full article

Background and Objectives: This study investigates the effects of hormonal fluctuations during the menstrual cycle and oral contraceptive (OCP) cycles on peripheral vascular circulation in the lower limbs of healthy childbearing-age women across different phases of the menstrual cycle. Materials and Methods: Fourteen eumenorrheic non-oral contraceptive (non-OCP) users (mean age 28.9 ± 3.5 years; height 165.0 ± 5.8 cm; weight 66.8 ± 11.2 kg) were evaluated during the follicular and ovulatory phases. Fifteen monophasic oral contraceptive (OCP) users (mean age 26.4 ± 2.67 years; height 162.3 ± 8.1 cm; weight 62.0 ± 9.8 kg) were assessed during their placebo and active pill phases. Doppler recordings of the femoral and popliteal arteries were obtained, and standard Doppler indices (systolic/diastolic ratio, pulsatility index, and resistance index) were analyzed across the menstrual and OCP cycles. Results: There were no significant interactions in the standard Doppler indices for the popliteal and femoral arteries between the menstrual phases and user groups (p > 0.05). Additionally, no significant group effects were observed between non-OCP users and OCP users, nor were there significant phase effects in any of the Doppler index variables (p > 0.05). Conclusions: Peripheral vascular function remained stable across menstrual and OCP phases, suggesting minimal impact of hormonal fluctuations on blood flow characteristics in young, healthy females. Full article

Background/Objectives: Endometriosis affects up to 10% of women of reproductive age and about 47% of adolescents with pelvic pain. Symptoms include dysmenorrhea, dyspareunia, and chronic pelvic pain (CPP). Adolescents often present atypical symptoms that can make endometriosis more difficult to diagnose. This study aimed to compare characteristics of pain, atypical symptoms, and the effects of hormonal treatments between adolescents and adults with endometriosis. Methods: A total of 238 women with endometriosis were included: 92 aged 12–18 (group A) and 146 over 18 (group B). Data on menarches, cycle length, comorbidities, dysmenorrhea, dyspareunia, CPP, analgesic use, pain characteristics, atypical symptoms, and endometrioma size were recorded. The efficacy, compliance, and side effects of hormonal treatments were also assessed. Quality of life (QoL) was measured using the SF-12 questionnaire at baseline and after six months of therapy. Results: Adolescents had earlier menarche (p < 0.001), longer menstrual periods (p < 0.001), and higher analgesic use (p = 0.001) compared to adults. Dysmenorrhea was more frequent (p = 0.01), lasted longer (p < 0.001), and was associated with higher pain scores (p < 0.001) in adolescents. CPP was more common in adolescents (p < 0.001), often described as “confined” (p = 0.04) and “oppressive” (p = 0.038), while adults reported it as “widespread” (p = 0.007). Headaches (p < 0.001) and nausea (p = 0.001) were also more frequent in adolescents. Both groups showed significant improvement in QoL with hormonal treatment (p < 0.001) and reported minimal side effects. Conclusions: Adolescents with endometriosis often present with earlier menarche, longer menstrual periods, more severe dysmenorrhea, and atypical symptoms. Hormonal contraceptives and dienogest are effective and safe treatments that improve pain and QoL. Full article

The purpose of the study is to identify variations in wellness parameters among elite female athletes, considering simultaneously the influence of natural menstrual cycle (MC) or hormonal contraception (HC) phases and weekly and seasonal variations. A total of 54 elite female athletes were followed up with through a 6-month daily monitoring of their reported fitness, sleep quality, mood, and menstrual symptoms. Estimated cycle phases, days of the week, and seasons were all integrated into a single model to study cyclicities concomitantly. A total of 263 cycles were analyzed, totaling 7370 pieces of daily self-reported data. We observed more frequent symptoms during the menstruation and the pause phase. Reported fitness was greater in the mid-cycle and mood was lower at the end of the cycle for the MC group. Wellness parameters were rather stable for HC users. For both groups, symptoms were more frequent in summer. Reported fitness levels were lower on Monday, while mood scores were highest on Saturday and Sunday. In summer and autumn, fitness, sleep quality, and mood were greater. A cyclical wellness rhythm was identified in the menstrual cycle and persists even when considering weekdays and seasons cyclicities. This comprehensive approach helps to identify physiological influence on human behaviors, considering the specificities of women. Full article

The aim of this paper is to explore the gynaecological health patterns, contraceptive use, body perception, and motherhood experiences of female professional football players. The participants were recruited via email using FIFPRO (Football Players Worldwide). Online questionnaires were completed by consenting participants. The mean age at menarche was 13.5 years with an average cycle length of 26 days, and a bleeding period of 5 days. Cycle irregularities were experienced by 30%, and menstrual symptoms by 74%. Half of the participants used contraceptives, 60% using hormonal contraceptives, primarily oral contraceptive pills (38%), followed by implants (20%). The body satisfaction score was normal but there was a high drive-for-thinness (DT) score. The motherhood rate was low (1%), with participants experiencing normal conception, vaginal delivery, return to training after 6 weeks, and return to competition after 12 weeks. Our findings are consistent with findings in other elite female athletes with cycle irregularities and a significant number of cycle-related symptoms. The majority of those using contraceptives preferred hormonal contraceptives, reflecting trends seen in other elite athletes. While body satisfaction scores were normal, there was a high DT score, similar to that observed in lean and weight-category sports. The motherhood rate was low, consistent with previous findings in professional football players and other elite athletes. This may be due to a lack of financial support during pregnancy and the post-partum period. FIFPRO and its affiliated unions are negotiating better contracts for female football players. Full article

This study compared the mechanical and physiological load placed on Division I female collegiate lacrosse athletes (1) with and without hormone contraceptive (HC) use and (2) with and without menstruation during training and games. Athletes’ (20.6 ± 1.5 years, HC users = 9, naturally cycling (NC) athletes = 9) workloads—total distance traveled (TD, m), max speed (km∙h⁻¹), accelerations (repetitions), decelerations (repetitions), and high-intensity distance (HID, m)—were measured through VX Sport wearable microtechnology in training sessions (n = 87/athlete) and games (n = 17/athlete). Analyses showed no statistical group differences based on HC use or not, and no differences during menstruation versus non-menstruation for training or games. However, while not statistically different, athletes taking HCs performed worse during menstruation, with a 5.1% decline in decelerations, 3.4% decline in TD and HID, 1.2% decline in max speed, and 1% decline in accelerations. NC athletes did not show this same decline with menses. Given that withdrawal bleeding exacerbates performance reduction of HC users, it may be beneficial for these athletes to consider skipping their withdrawal bleed if it is likely to coincide with a game. Further research needs to be carried out to see if these trends are consistent across other female athletes in other sports. Full article

Background/Objective: The oral contraceptive pill (OCP) is widely used by women worldwide, yet the influence of the OCP on carbohydrate metabolism remains under-investigated, with existing studies being few and largely cross-sectional. The study objective was to assess, for the first time, the effect of the combined OCP on postprandial glycaemic response to an oral glucose bolus, using a randomised crossover design. Methods: The effect of a combined monophasic OCP phase on glucose homeostasis and metabolic profile was investigated in 21 healthy young women, who were regular users of either androgenic or anti-androgenic OCP formulations. Plasma glycaemic markers (glucose, insulin and C-peptide) were assessed prior to a 60 g glucose drink (fasting) and for a further 4 h postprandially; once during the “active” (hormone-containing) pill phase and once during the “inactive” (hormone-free) pill phase of the OCP usage cycle. Results: Despite no change in fasting values, in androgenic pill users, postprandial glucose and insulin responses to an oral glucose bolus were ~100% and ~50% greater, respectively, during the active versus inactive phase. In contrast, in anti-androgenic pill users there was no significant change in response between the two OCP usage cycle phases. Conclusions: These findings highlight an acute, but potentially detrimental, influence of the combined OCP on glucose homeostasis, particularly in users of formulations containing androgenic progestogens. Given the high global prevalence of OCP use and increasingly common prolonged active pill regimens, which may continue for months, years or even decades, potential cumulative effects of such changes on metabolic risk demand further investigation. Full article

Background/Objectives: To support women’s informed decisions and reproductive self-care, confident reproductive health-related knowledge is needed, supported by adequate health literacy (HL). No corresponding survey has been carried out in Hungary on inequalities to provide information addressing education. Materials and Methods: In the current cross-sectional online survey, 301 women of reproductive age (27.16 ± 0.36 years) were asked with the Hungarian versions of validated and standardised questionnaires about reproductive knowledge on hormones, ovulation, menstrual cycle, pregnancy signs and birth control (Knowledge of Female Body Scale—KFB), and HL (Brief Health Literacy Screening Tool—BRIEF). Spearman correlation and multivariable linear regression analyses were utilised, with a significance level set at p < 0.05. IBM SPSS version 28.0 (IBM SPSS, Armonk, NY, USA: IBM Corp.) and G*Power (version 3.1.9.7; Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany) software. The STROBE checklist was followed. The Clinical Trial Registry Nr. is NCT06146673. Results: The KFB composite score was high (20.01 ± 2.33); 86.374% had “high knowledge”. Still, lacking information was identified for the mechanisms of certain contraceptive methods and early physical signs of pregnancy. A significant difference was also found in the KFB scores in the case of higher age (p = 0.019), higher education level (p = 0.018) and previous live birth (p = 0.028). A positive correlation was found between KFB and HL (p < 0.001), education (p = 0.005), and age (p = 0.021). A multiple regression analysis (R² = 0.087, p < 0.001) indicated that both HL (p < 0.001) and age (p = 0.003) are potential positive predictors of adequate reproductive knowledge, whereas induced abortion (p = 0.013) might serve as an inverse predictor. Conclusions: Inequalities in women’s knowledge about their reproductive system and HL were found, and it was significantly the lowest in their highest conception probability age. Therefore, in addition to targeted education, HL also needs improvement. Full article

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) is a complex hormonal disorder that is associated with heightened metabolic risks. While oxidative stress (OS) is known to play a role in PCOS, the precise nature of the relationship between PCOS and increased OS remains not entirely understood. Combined oral contraceptives (COCs) are the first-line treatment to regulate menstrual cycles and androgen levels, but their impact on oxidative stress requires further study. We conducted a transcriptomic analysis using RNAseq and assessed the levels of various oxidative stress (OS) markers in serum samples from women with PCOS and controls and whether they were using combined oral contraceptives (COCs), including enzymatic activities, FRAP, and 8-isoprostane (8-iso). A total of 359 genes were differentially expressed in women with PCOS compared to control women. Genes differentially expressed were enriched in functions related to inflammation and, interestingly, oxidative stress response. In controls, 8-iso levels were increased in women using COCs, whereas in women with PCOS, 8-iso levels were reduced in those using oral contraceptives (191.1 ± 97 vs. 26.4 ± 21 pg/mL, p: <0.0001). Correlation analyses showed a trend for a negative correlation between 8-iso and Ferriman score in women with PCOS consuming COCs (r = −0.86, p = 0.06) and a negative correlation between GSH and hyperandrogenism in women with PCOS (r = −0.89, p = 0.01). These results reveal the presence of lipid peroxidation in women with PCOS, which was modified by the use of COCs, providing new insights into the pathophysiology of PCOS in the Chilean population. Full article