Search Results (221)

Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine polyether biotoxins produced by dinoflagellates that accumulate in filter-feeding organisms and pose a threat to human health and seafood safety. This study presents the first comprehensive analysis of azaspiracid analogs in shellfish from the Adriatic Sea with the use of high-resolution mass spectrometry. AZA-2 was quantified in samples collected from Šibenik Bay between January and May 2024, with the highest concentrations observed in early January. In addition to AZA-2, several known analogs (AZA-6, AZA-9, AZA-10, AZA-19, AZA-41, and AZA-43) and a potentially new analog (m/z 884.4928) were also detected. The fragmentation patterns of this new analog indicate a structural similarity to AZA-19 with a possible double bond modification. Potential pitfalls regarding the misinterpretation of spectra derived from molecules containing ¹³C atoms were recognized and addressed. The presence of multiple analogs, some of which have high toxic potential, suggests that regulatory practice should consider including more than three analogs in the monitoring program. Full article

Diarrheic shellfish toxins (DSTs), especially okadaic acid (OA) and its related compounds, are lipophilic marine biotoxins mainly synthesized by dinoflagellates of the genera Dinophysis and Prorocentrum. These compounds bioaccumulate in filter-feeding shellfish like mussels and clams, posing a considerable public health risk due to their strong gastrointestinal effects when contaminated seafood is consumed. This review offers a thorough overview of the current understanding of OA-group toxins with a focus on the molecular mechanisms of toxicity, including cytoskeletal disruption, apoptosis, inflammation, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Additionally, their ecological impacts on aquatic organisms and patterns of bioaccumulation are explored. Recent advances in detection methods and regulatory frameworks are discussed, highlighting the necessity for robust monitoring systems to safeguard seafood safety. Enhanced knowledge of the toxicity, distribution, and fate of DSP (diarrheic shellfish poisoning) is essential for improving risk assessment and managing marine biotoxins. Despite methodological advances, gaps remain regarding chronic exposure and species-specific detoxification pathways. Full article

In recent years, there has been an increase in the consumption of seafood such as shellfish and crustaceans due to their pleasant taste and nutritional value. Fish are also a crucial part of a healthy, balanced diet. However, the consumption of these products may cause food poisoning through marine biotoxins. In recent years, several legal acts have been published by the European Commission to regulate toxin limits and describe their reference analysis methods. Commission Regulation (EC) No. 853/2004 established the maximum contents of marine biotoxins only in bivalve mollusks. Although other groups of marine organisms such as crustaceans (crabs, shrimps, and lobsters) and fish are not included in the EU rules for toxin monitoring, they may still be vectors of marine biotoxins for humans. Due to this, there is an urgent need for studies regarding the occurrence of marine biotoxins in non-bivalve seafood organisms and their potential influence on public health. In this review, the most important cases of accumulation of marine biotoxins in crustaceans and fish in recent years are described. Full article

The detection of tetrodotoxins (TTXs) in European shellfish led the European Union to request a risk assessment from the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). EFSA set a reference limit of 44 µg TTX equivalents kg⁻¹ and called for more data on TTX occurrence, especially in gastropods, which can accumulate in TTXs but remain poorly studied. Recently, preliminary monitoring has revealed the recurrent presence of TTXs in mussels in three areas along the North–Central Adriatic coast of Italy, while research on non-bivalve organisms has not yet been carried out. This study presents a preliminary survey, conducted from January 2023 to March 2025, on the presence of TTXs in gastropods, echinoderms, and arthropods collected from this area. A method in Hydrophilic Interaction Liquid Chromatography coupled with tandem Mass Spectrometry (HILIC-MS/MS) for detecting TTXs in bivalve mollusks was first tested through an international proficiency test, then optimized for the other invertebrates, the object of this study. TTX levels in all gastropods and arthropod samples were undetectable, while traces (~5 µg kg⁻¹) were found in one echinoderm sample (Paracentrotus lividus), marking the first reported occurrence of TTX in this species. Sea urchins are widely consumed in Italy; therefore, this finding is of particular importance from a public health perspective and deserves further investigation. Some gastropod genera or species sampled (e.g., Nassarius, Rapana venosa) have been identified as TTX carriers in other regions; therefore, the negative results obtained in this study may be related to seasonal or geographic variability. These results provide valuable data to EFSA’s call for monitoring emerging risks, particularly as climate change may increase TTX prevalence in European waters as well as worldwide. Full article

With the increasing globalization of supply chains, ensuring food safety has become more complex, necessitating advanced approaches for risk assessment. This study aims to review the transformative role of machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) in enabling intelligent food safety management by efficiently analyzing high-quality and nonlinear data. We systematically summarize recent advances in the application of ML and DL, focusing on key areas such as biotoxin detection, heavy metal contamination, analysis of pesticide and veterinary drug residues, and microbial risk prediction. While traditional algorithms including support vector machines and random forests demonstrate strong performance in classification and risk evaluation, unsupervised methods such as K-means and hierarchical cluster analysis facilitate pattern recognition in unlabeled datasets. Furthermore, novel DL architectures, such as convolutional neural networks, recurrent neural networks, and transformers, enable automated feature extraction and multimodal data integration, substantially improving detection accuracy and efficiency. In conclusion, we recommend future work to emphasize model interpretability, multi-modal data fusion, and integration into HACCP systems, thereby supporting intelligent, interpretable, and real-time food safety management. Full article

The marine environment emerges as a key provider of food and sustainable products. However, these benefits are accompanied by numerous challenges owing to harmful algal blooms (HAB) and their associated biotoxins, which accumulate in organisms, like bivalves, threatening seafood quality. Among the various biotoxins, paralytic shellfish toxins (PST), the causative agents of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), are among the most potent, lethal, and frequently reported instances of human intoxication. Removing PST from marine system is particularly challenging because of their hydrophilicity, susceptibility to biotransformation and the potential influence of other substances naturally present in the environment. Although there are several methods applied to mitigate HAB, to the best of our knowledge there are no proven effective methods for removing PST in marine environments. Consequently, there is a need to develop efficient removal technologies, especially envisaging fast, environmentally safe, inexpensive, and readily available solutions. Having examined several proposed methods for removing PST (e.g., thermal and industrial procedures, adsorption using different materials, photodegradation, AOPs) and comparing their efficacy, this study aims to streamline the current knowledge on PST removal, identify knowledge gaps, and provide valuable insights for researchers, environmental managers, and policymakers engaged in mitigating the risks associated with PST. Full article

Plant-derived toxins such as ricin and abrin represent some of the most potent biological agents known, posing significant threats to public health and security due to their high toxicity, relative ease of extraction, and widespread availability. These ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs) have been implicated in politically and criminally motivated events, underscoring their critical importance in the context of biodefense. Public safety agencies, including law enforcement, customs, and emergency response units, require rapid, sensitive, and portable detection methods to effectively counteract these threats. However, many existing screening technologies lack the capability to detect biotoxins unless specifically designed for this purpose, revealing a critical gap in current biodefense preparedness. Consequently, there is an urgent need for robust, field-deployable detection platforms that operate reliably under real-world conditions. End-users in the security and public health sectors demand analytical tools that combine high specificity and sensitivity with operational ease and adaptability. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the biochemical characteristics of ricin and abrin, their documented misuse, and the challenges associated with their detection. Furthermore, it critically assesses key detection platforms—including immunoassays, mass spectrometry, biosensors, and lateral flow assays—focusing on their applicability in operational environments. Advancing detection capabilities within frontline services is imperative for effective prevention, timely intervention, and the strengthening of biosecurity measures. Full article

The urgent need for advanced analytical tools for environmental monitoring and food safety drives the development of novel biosensing approaches and solutions. A computationally driven workflow for the development of a rapid electrochemical aptasensor for okadaic acid (OA), a critical marine biotoxin, is reported. The core of this strategy is a rational design process, where in silico modeling was employed to optimize the biological recognition element. A 63-nucleotide aptamer was successfully truncated to a highly efficient 31-nucleotide variant. Molecular docking simulations confirmed the high binding affinity of the minimized aptamer and guided the design of the surface immobilization chemistry to ensure robust performance. The fabricated sensor, which utilizes a ferrocene-labeled aptamer, delivered a sensitive response with a detection limit of 2.5 nM (n = 5) over a linear range of 5–200 nM. A significant advantage for practical applications is the remarkably short assay time of 5 min. The sensor’s applicability was successfully validated in complex food matrices, achieving excellent recovery rates of 82–103% in spiked mussel samples. This study establishes an integrated computational–experimental methodology that streamlines the development of high-performance biosensors for critical food safety and environmental monitoring challenges. Full article

Public health concerns related to food contaminants, including biotoxins, pesticide and veterinary drug residues, illegal additives, foodborne pathogens, and heavy metals, have garnered significant public attention in recent years. Consequently, there is an urgent need to develop rapid and accurate technologies to detect these harmful substances. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), due to its characteristics of high sensitivity and specificity enabling the detection of food contaminants within complex matrices, has attracted widespread interest. This review focuses on the application of noble metal-based nanocomposites as SERS-active substrates for food contaminant detection. It particularly highlights the structure–performance relationships of metallic nanomaterials, including gold and silver nanoparticles (e.g., nanospheres, nanostars, nanorods), bimetallic structures (e.g., Au@Ag core–shell), as well as metal–nonmetal composite nanomaterials such as semiconductor-based, carbon-based, and porous framework-based materials. All of which play a crucial role in achieving effective Raman signal enhancement. Furthermore, the significant applications in detecting various contaminants and distinct advantages in terms of the sensitivity and selectivity of noble metal-based nanomaterials are also discussed. Finally, this review addresses current challenges associated with SERS technology based on noble metal-based nanomaterials and proposes corresponding strategies alongside future perspectives. Full article

Saxitoxin (STX) is a toxin with paralyzing and lethal properties, necessitating the development of a simple analytical method. This study developed a nucleic acid aptamer biosensor using graphene oxide (GO) as a fluorescence quencher for STX detection. GO was combined with M30-f, an STX nucleic acid aptamer modification with 5-carboxyfluorescein, which can produce fluorescence absorption under the conditions of an excitation wavelength of 408 nm and emission wavelength of 515 nm. Based on the principle of fluorescence resonance energy transfer, the fluorescence of M30-f was quenched. In the presence of STX, M30-f specifically binds to STX and dissociates from the GO surface, thereby restoring fluorescence. The STX content can be quantitatively detected through differences in fluorescence absorption. The influence of ultrasonic time on the fluorescence quenching ability of GO was investigated. The aqueous solution of graphene oxide, 30GO, optimized by ultrasound treatment for a duration of 30 min, demonstrated excellent fluorescence quenching capability. 30GO was analyzed utilizing various characterization techniques, including SEM, FT-IR, UV, XPS, XRD, AFM, and contact angle measurements. The methodological validation showed that the established STX sensor exhibits excellent linearity within a concentration range of 10–100,000 ng/L, with a limit of detection (LOD) as low as 0.098 μg/L. In addition, the results further demonstrated the sensor’s high specificity for detecting neurotoxic shellfish toxin STX. The recovery rate for clam samples ranged from 89.12% to 104.71%, while that for oyster samples ranged from 91.20% to 109.65%, with relative standard deviations (RSDs) all below 3%. This aptamer sensor is characterized by its simplicity, high sensitivity, and broad detection range, providing significant technical support for advancing marine biotoxin research. Full article

Aquatic biomass—ranging from fish scales and crustacean shells to various algae species—offers an abundant, renewable source for carbon dot (CD) synthesis, aligning with circular economy principles. This review highlights recent studies for valorizing aquatic biomass into high-performance carbon-based nanomaterials—specifically aquatic biomass-based carbon dots (AB-CDs)—briefly summarizing green synthesis approaches (e.g., hydrothermal carbonization, pyrolysis, and microwave-assisted treatments) that minimize environmental impact. Subsequent sections highlight the varied applications of AB-CDs, particularly in biosensing (including the detection of marine biotoxins), environmental monitoring of water pollutants, and drug delivery systems. Physically AB-CDs show unique optical and physicochemical properties—tunable fluorescence, high quantum yields, enhanced sensitivity, selectivity, and surface bio-functionalization—that make them ideal for a wide array of applications. Overall, the discussion underlines the significance of this approach; indeed, transforming aquatic biomass into carbon dots can contribute to sustainable nanotechnology, offering eco-friendly solutions in sensing, environmental monitoring, and therapeutics. Finally, current challenges and future research directions are discussed to give a perspective of the potential of AB-CDs; the final aim is their integration into multifunctional, real-time monitoring and therapeutic systems—for sustainable nanotechnology innovations. Full article

Chronic inflammatory response syndrome (CIRS) and Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS) are debilitating multisystem illnesses that share overlapping symptoms and molecular patterns, including immune dysregulation, mitochondrial impairment, and vascular dysfunction. This review provides a chronological synthesis of biomarker development in CIRS, tracing its evolution from early functional tests such as visual contrast sensitivity (VCS) to advanced transcriptomic profiling. Drawing on peer-reviewed studies spanning two decades, we examine the layered integration of neuroendocrine, immunologic, metabolic, and genomic markers that collectively support a multisystem model of innate immune activation specific to environmentally acquired illness. Particular focus is given to the Gene Expression: Inflammation Explained (GENIE) platform’s use of transcriptomics to classify disease stages and distinguish CIRS from other fatiguing conditions. While ME/CFS research continues to explore overlapping pathophysiologic features, it has yet to establish a unified diagnostic model with validated biomarkers or exposure-linked mechanisms. As a result, many patients labeled with ME/CFS may, in fact, represent unrecognized CIRS cases. This review underscores the importance of structured biomarker timelines in improving differential diagnosis and guiding treatment in complex chronic illness and highlights the reproducibility of the CIRS framework in contrast to the diagnostic ambiguity surrounding ME/CFS. Full article

Terahertz spectroscopy (0.1~10 THz), as a new type of non-destructive testing method with both microwave and infrared characteristics, has shown remarkable potential in the field of food quality testing in recent years. Its unique penetration, high sensitivity, and low photon energy characteristics, combined with chemometrics and machine learning methods, provide an efficient solution for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of complex food ingredients. In this paper, we systematically review the principles of terahertz spectroscopy and its key applications in food testing, focusing on its research progress in pesticide residues, additives, biotoxins, and mold, adulteration identification, variety identification, and nutrient content detection. By integrating spectral data preprocessing, reconstruction algorithms, and machine learning model optimization strategies, this paper further analyzes the advantages and challenges of this technology in enhancing detection accuracy and efficiency. In addition, combined with the urgent demand for fast and nondestructive technology in the field of food detection, the future development direction of the deep integration of terahertz spectroscopy technology and artificial intelligence is envisioned, with a view to providing theoretical support and technical reference for food safety assurance and nutritional health research. Full article

(1) Background: This study evaluated the potential of an aqueous extract from Quercus robur L. leaves for chronic wound healing. Its composition, rich in bioactive compounds (tannins and flavonoids), confers antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. (2) Methods: The toxicity and ability of the extract to enhance cell migration were tested in human keratinocytes (HaCaT cell line). Additionally, a proteomic analysis was performed on treated cells. (3) Results: The extract exhibited low cytotoxicity (IC50 = 943 µg·mL⁻¹) compared to other plant extracts. At 5 mg·mL⁻¹, it significantly accelerated wound closure at 8 h, surpassing negative control and Reoxcare; however, results were comparable at 12 h. Proteomic analysis identified 117 differentially expressed proteins (21 upregulated, 96 downregulated) involved in essential processes such as cell migration, blood clotting, and cholesterol biosynthesis. Specifically, the extract increased the expression of CYP51A1, LSS, and SQLE, while inhibiting Delta (14)-sterol reductase, key enzymes in cholesterol metabolism, suggesting a potential mechanism for tissue regeneration. (4) Conclusions: The aqueous extract of Q. robur leaves shows promise as a natural therapeutic agent for chronic wound healing, potentially aiding tissue regeneration and modulation of cholesterol metabolism. Full article