Search Results (622)

Kombucha fermentation generates two fractions of potential relevance to food-packaging applications: a fermented liquid containing organic acids, polyphenols and other metabolites, and a cellulose-rich pellicle formed by cellulose-producing acetic acid bacteria. However, the fermented beverage, raw pellicle and purified kombucha-derived bacterial cellulose (KBC) differ substantially in composition, functionality and food-contact suitability and should not be treated as interchangeable materials. This review critically examines bacterial cellulose formation during kombucha fermentation, purification and modification strategies, packaging-relevant properties, and the application of kombucha-derived materials in films, coatings and composites. Purified KBC provides a continuous nanofibrillar network and can exhibit good mechanical and oxygen-barrier properties under dry conditions. Its hydrophilic character, however, promotes moisture sorption and swelling, which may impair mechanical integrity and barrier performance at elevated relative humidity. Blending, coating, grafting and crosslinking can improve selected material properties, but their effects are formulation-specific and may involve trade-offs between moisture resistance, mechanical performance, biodegradability and food-contact safety. Fermented kombucha liquid and native or mildly washed pellicles may contribute fermentation-derived bioactive compounds; however, antioxidant or antimicrobial activity measured in the beverage or raw pellicle cannot be automatically attributed to purified KBC or the final packaging material. Current evidence supports the use of KBC as a structural matrix, reinforcing phase, coating component or carrier of active substances. Nevertheless, limited migration data, heterogeneous testing conditions, insufficient real-food studies and a lack of pilot-scale, regulatory and life-cycle assessments currently restrict its broader industrial implementation. Full article

Alginate is a biodegradable and renewable natural polysaccharide that has been extensively investigated for the design of macromolecular delivery systems. This review presents an overview of alginate-based microparticles regarding the relationship between molecular structure, gelation behavior, and functional performance. The impacts of main structural parameters (mannuronic to guluronic acid (M/G) ratio, molecular weight, and block distribution) are discussed comprehensively. Particular attention is given to Ca²⁺-mediated ionic gelation, including egg-box junction zone formation and the development of three-dimensional hydrogel networks. Different production strategies such as external and internal gelation, emulsification, and microfluidic approaches are evaluated in terms of their impact on particle morphology and network homogeneity. In addition, the effects of formulation and process parameters on encapsulation efficiency, mechanical stability, and mass transfer behavior are analyzed. Furthermore, release mechanisms are discussed in relation to network structure and polymer-solute interactions. The environmental significance of alginate-based systems is also emphasized as sustainable alternatives to synthetic polymeric carriers. Full article

The aim of this study was to impart antimicrobial activity to the surface of two types of polymeric films: biodegradable poly(butylene succinate)—PBS and recyclable biaxially oriented polypropylene—PP films against selected strains of mold and bacteria. The films were coated with a hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) carrier containing scCO₂ extracts of frankincense (F) and rosemary (R). The modified PP and PBS films, including both additives (FR), exhibited higher antibacterial activity than the coated materials containing exclusively F, and they were selected for storage tests of sliced, plant-based meat analog. The influence of the packaging on maintaining the quality of the tested product during 48 h and 96 h storage at 5 °C was evaluated. The gathered data revealed that functional layers containing mixed scCO₂ extracts can be successfully applied on the surface of both types of foils to obtain active packaging, maintaining the microbial quality of vegan alternatives during their secondary storage. Full article

Potato (Solanum tuberosum) is a key staple crop in Kenya, where plant-parasitic nematodes are among the most damaging yield constraints for smallholder farmers. This study evaluated fluopyram-treated banana fibre paper, a biodegradable carrier for targeted delivery of ultra-low nematicide doses, under on-farm conditions in Nyandarua County over three consecutive cropping seasons across properly and poorly managed fields. Seventeen nematode genera were identified, with Helicotylenchus and Globodera (potato cyst nematode, PCN) recording the highest population densities. Fluopyram-treated banana paper significantly suppressed Globodera juvenile densities and reduced total nematode reproductive factors by ≥26% and PCN cyst multiplication factors, the effects most pronounced under poor management. No significant nematode suppression was observed under good management. Total yield in fluopyram treatment approximately doubled in well-managed plots and increased by ~50% in poorly managed plots relative to untreated controls. Fluopyram-treated plots also produced a higher proportion of large-grade tubers under proper management, improving marketable yield. These findings demonstrate that banana fibre technology can effectively manage nematode pests under variable real-world smallholder conditions, with yield benefits amplified by good agronomic practices. The technology offers a practical, climate-smart, and sustainable nematode management tool, with potential for wide adoption across sub-Saharan Africa. Full article

Ensuring high crop productivity while reducing nutrient losses and environmental impacts remains a central challenge of modern fertilization strategies. Controlled-release fertilizers (CRFs) have emerged as a key tool to synchronize nutrient availability with plant demand by embedding soluble nutrient sources within coatings or matrices that modulate water penetration and ion diffusion. This narrative review synthesizes recent advances in CRF materials and technologies, with particular emphasis on biodegradable and bio-based systems, hydrogels, nanostructured carriers, and extrusion-based matrix formulations. It outlines the main classes of coating and matrix materials, their release mechanisms, agronomic performance, and documented benefits for nutrient-use efficiency, crop yield and quality, and soil and water protection. The review also analyzes major scientific, technical, environmental, and economic barriers that currently limit the large-scale deployment of CRFs, including microplastic pollution from persistent polymer coatings and the difficulty of tailoring release profiles under variable field conditions. Emerging directions are highlighted, such as composite and multilayer bio-based coatings, superhydrophobic and stimuli-responsive structures, biochar- and compost-based matrices, nutrient recovery from waste streams, and integration with precision agriculture and sensor technologies. The paper identifies priorities for future research needed to translate promising CRF concepts into robust, field-validated and sustainable fertilization solutions. Full article

Background/Objectives: Nanoparticle carriers can enhance cancer immunotherapy by improving tumor delivery, activating innate immune responses, and remodeling tumor microenvironments. This review evaluates four categories of formulations: poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles, mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs), magnetic or iron oxide nanoparticles (MNPs), and covalent organic frameworks (COFs). Methods: A reproducible PubMed audit identified 568 records. A rule-assisted title-and-abstract screen, followed by verification, removed 320 reviews, non-primary publications, and reports lacking qualifying in vivo formulation evidence. Of 248 potentially relevant reports, 15 primary studies were selected as representative examples; the remaining 233 were not classified as ineligible but were not selected as representative examples. These reports yielded 16 formulation-level records. One author conducted screening and extraction without protocol registration, duplicate review, or formal risk-of-bias scoring. Results: PLGA demonstrates the most robust polymer-level regulatory and manufacturing precedent; however, it remains limited by cargo instability, burst release, and challenges associated with process transfer. Biodegradable mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) facilitate pore-based protection and cytosolic delivery of cyclic dinucleotides, although their degradation and clearance are dependent on formulation specifics. Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) integrate magnetic targeting, imaging, and hyperthermia capabilities but necessitate formulation-specific magnetic characterization, field dosimetry, and repeated-dose safety assessments. Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) provide extensive stimulus-responsive and catalytic functionalities but exhibit the least mature evidence concerning biodegradation, scalable manufacturing, and independent reproducibility. Efficacy data across different studies were not pooled due to heterogeneity in models, schedules, comparators, and tumor-growth-inhibition formulas. Conclusions: The evidence does not endorse a universal platform ranking. Translation depends on standardized immune endpoints, explicit efficacy formulas, quantitative biodistribution assessments, mechanism-confirming experiments, repeat-dose toxicology studies, scalable manufacturing processes, and independent replication. The resulting evidence map serves as a descriptive and hypothesis-generating tool rather than a meta-analysis or clinical-priority scoring system. Full article

Widespread application of dyes has led to severe threats to water environments, and advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have been confirmed as an effective solution to dye degradation. Among them, ozonation was one of the most prevalent AOPs. In this study, the effects of using AOPs—mainly based on ozone (O₃)—to treat printing and dyeing wastewater (PDW) were compared. Firstly, ozone carrier active carbon fiber (ACF) was investigated for adsorption performance evaluation on pretreatment. The results showed that ACF treated by ultrasound performed best compared with ACF treated with other four pretreatment methods. Secondly, comparative studies based on individual O₃, ultraviolet (UV), and combined O₃/UV processes on PDW under different pH conditions were conducted. The decolorization rate of reactive brilliant blue X-BR dye under acidic conditions was higher than in alkaline and neutral dyes. In addition, with the utilization of single ozone and O₃/UV under pH = 4 conditions, the decolorization rate could be above 99%. However, individual UV caused few variations in wastewater chromaticity. Thirdly, the effects of pH, UV light intensity, hydraulic retention time (HRT), and ACF filling rate on the performance of the O₃/UV/ACF system were preliminarily screened using a saturated L9 orthogonal design. In terms of the results, the performance of the constructed O₃/UV/ACF AOP system was superior than the conventional oxidation method, in which HRT had the largest apparent main effect on decolorization, followed by pH, ACF filling rate, and UV light intensity. Among the factor levels examined, the best-performing combination was pH 4, a UV power of 48 W, an HRT of 3 h, and an ACF filling rate of 80%. In a subsequent single kinetic experiment conducted using this combination, the final decolorization efficiency was 92.14%, the COD removal was 60%, and the biodegradability increased by 63.08%. This study offered novel insights into an O₃-based AOP system for improving PDW treatment. Full article

Rhizobial inoculants play a critical role in sustainable agriculture by enhancing biological nitrogen fixation; however, maintaining rhizobial viability during storage remains a formidable challenge. In this paper, six embedded rhizobial formulations, designated E-SA/PVA R1 through E-SA/PVA R6, were prepared via an embedding method using sodium alginate (SA), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and eggshell powder as primary materials with varying component ratios. Structural characterization confirmed the suitability of the composite hydrogel carriers for rhizobial encapsulation: Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) revealed effective crosslinking between SA and PVA, yielding a stable matrix. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) confirmed the successful encapsulation of abundant rhizobia within the carriers. Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) was employed to characterize the pore architecture of the composite carriers, revealing the relationships among porosity, average pore size, and permeability. Mass transfer evaluation using three probe molecules of differing molecular weights yielded diffusion permeability coefficients (DPC) that quantitatively elucidated the size-dependent transport behavior within the carrier matrices. All embedded formulations displayed favorable biodegradability in soil environments. Notably, the embedded agents maintained viable cell counts above 8 log CFU/g across all formulations even after 60 days under various pH and temperature conditions, satisfying the microbial fertilizer standard in China, establishing them as promising candidates for practical rhizobial inoculant applications. Full article

Oleanolic acid is a naturally occurring pentacyclic triterpenoid with broad preclinical promise in inflammation, oxidative stress, liver injury, metabolic disorders, cancer-related models, skin disease, and wound repair. Its further development, however, is constrained by poor aqueous solubility, low and variable bioavailability, limited barrier transport, crystallinity, and strong dependence of biological response on the formulation used. These properties make oleanolic acid a useful example of a hydrophobic natural compound whose pharmacological performance is inseparable from delivery design. This review examines polymeric nanocarriers and polymer-assisted delivery platforms developed for oleanolic acid delivery. Polymeric nanocarriers discussed in the review include biodegradable PLA/PLGA nanoparticles, PEGylated polymeric nanoparticles, polymeric micelles, nanogels, hyaluronic-acid-based nanoprodrugs, and selected polymer-assisted hybrid nanostructures. Hydrogels, polymeric fiber membranes, local depots, and microneedle systems are included as route-enabling delivery platforms when the polymeric matrix directly contributes to OA incorporation, carrier stabilization, local retention, barrier bypass, or release control. Non-polymeric delivery systems are discussed only as comparators or when their performance depends on integration with a polymeric component. Rather than treating these carriers only as solubility enhancers, the review evaluates how polymer composition, carrier architecture, drug physical state, release behavior, and route of administration affect oleanolic acid exposure. Particular attention is given to controlled release, local retention, disease-oriented delivery, and critical quality attributes such as particle size, loading, encapsulation efficiency, solid-state form, stability, residual solvent, sterility, and batch-to-batch reproducibility. Representative quantitative data on carrier size, drug loading, encapsulation efficiency, release, stability, tissue exposure, and biological outcomes are compared to illustrate both formulation-specific performance and the substantial methodological heterogeneity of the available studies. The available evidence indicates that increased apparent solubility, increased biological exposure, and improved therapeutic response should be treated as related but distinct outcomes. The most realistic near-term opportunities may lie in local and tissue-targeted applications, including inflammatory skin disease, wound healing, dermal delivery, and osteoarthritis, where sustained target-site exposure may be more relevant than systemic bioavailability. Future progress will depend on demonstrating that each formulation provides reproducible, safe, and route-appropriate OA exposure, together with a measurable advantage over simpler delivery approaches. Full article

In recent decades, bioplastics have gained increasing attention as an alternative material to conventional petroleum-based plastics due to their biodegradability, which contributes to reduced environmental pollution. After their use, bioplastics can be transformed into environmentally friendly products, such as compost, or energy carriers as biogas. This study investigates the short-term batch anaerobic biodegradability of polylactic acid (PLA) bioplastics accessible to household consumers, explores the impact of various pretreatment techniques on the anaerobic digestion process, and assesses the potential of PLA as a sustainable source of energy. Anaerobic digestion of thermally or biologically pretreated PLA, as well as of a PLA–ethyl acetate mixture, at 46.3 ± 0.5 °C resulted in a biogas yield ranging from 139.20 ± 22.14 to 510.26 ± 9.92 L/kg of raw material. However, PLA mass loss analysis indicated that a short-term 25-day digestion period was insufficient for complete biodegradation. Furthermore, considering the biogas production dynamics, it is unlikely that a longer digestion period would have significantly increased the biodegradation degree. Depending on the pretreatment method applied, the degree of PLA biodegradation after anaerobic processing ranged from 12.87% to 26.46%. Full article

This study investigated the antimicrobial efficacy, biodegradability, and cytotoxicity of carvacrol-infused hemicellulose/methylcellulose (HB/MC)-based coating solutions and films for active food packaging applications. Micro-emulsified (M) and coarse (C) HB/MC solutions with 1 or 2% carvacrol (Car) were investigated. Their antimicrobial properties were evaluated by applying the solutions directly to eggshell surfaces (coating) or headspace (film). Against Salmonella enterica, the 2% carvacrol micro-emulsified coating (HB/MC+Car-2%/M) produced the greatest bacterial reduction, reaching 8.35 log₁₀ units relative to the untreated control by Day 7. Under the same conditions, the corresponding coarse-emulsified coating (HB/MC+Car-2%/C) achieved a 2.10-log₁₀ reduction. When evaluated as a headspace-active film, HB/MC+Car-2%/M achieved a 6.28-log₁₀ reduction, demonstrating the superior antimicrobial performance of the direct-contact micro-emulsified coating. Biodegradability, assessed via biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), evidenced 100% biodegradation for all formulations under aerobic conditions. The highest BOD value was observed in HB/MC+Car-2%\M, indicating elevated microbial activity. Cytotoxicity evaluation using the MTT assay confirmed that all coating solutions were non-toxic, with HB/MC+Car-2%\M promoting the highest cell viability across tested concentrations. These results demonstrated that industrial crops and by-products could be used as carriers for bioactive agents via a micro-emulsification step, thereby significantly enhancing the functional performance of plant-based materials, offering a promising route for developing safe, biodegradable, and plant-based antimicrobial coatings and packaging materials. Full article

Cyclodextrin (CD)-based supramolecular nanofibers (NFs) have emerged as an advanced class of multifunctional materials for active food packaging by integrating host–guest supramolecular chemistry with electrospun nanofibrous architectures. The unique hydrophobic cavity and hydrophilic exterior of CDs enable the encapsulation of a wide range of bioactive compounds, including essential oils, natural antioxidants, antimicrobials, and volatile active agents, thereby enhancing their solubility, stability, controlled release, and preservation efficacy. This review comprehensively discusses the molecular structure and inclusion complexation mechanisms of CDs, recent advances in polymer-assisted and polymer-free electrospinning strategies, and the design of CD-based supramolecular nanofibers for food preservation. Particular emphasis is placed on the relationship between fiber morphology, supramolecular interactions, and controlled release behavior, which collectively govern antimicrobial, antioxidant, moisture management, and barrier properties. Recent developments involving biodegradable polymers, hybrid nanofibrous systems, and cyclodextrin-based metal–organic frameworks (CD-MOFs) are critically summarized, highlighting their roles in improving encapsulation efficiency, mechanical stability, and multifunctional performance. The review further compares CD-based nanofibers with other advanced encapsulation technologies, including liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, nanoemulsions, polymeric nanoparticles, microspheres, and conventional MOFs, providing a comprehensive evaluation of their loading capacity, release kinetics, scalability, cost, and regulatory suitability for food-contact applications. Representative applications in the preservation of fruits, vegetables, meat, seafood, dairy products, and bakery products demonstrate significant improvements in microbial inhibition, oxidation resistance, ethylene and volatile organic compound adsorption, and shelf-life extension through sustained delivery of natural preservatives. Ultimately, the current challenges, including large-scale manufacturing, long-term stability, regulatory approval, and commercialization, are discussed together with future directions, focusing on smart packaging, stimuli-responsive delivery systems, intelligent sensing, biodegradable multifunctional materials, and sustainable industrial implementation. Full article

Chronic wounds remain a significant clinical challenge due to persistent inflammation and impaired tissue repair. Anti-inflammatory agents play a pivotal role in wound management by reducing excessive inflammation, preventing further tissue damage, and creating a microenvironment conducive to healing. Among them, Ketoprofen, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, is effective in modulating inflammation. However, its systemic administration is associated with adverse effects, highlighting the need for localized and controlled delivery systems. Gelatin-based carriers provide important advantages, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, low immunogenicity, cost-effectiveness, and the ease of chemical modification to tailor drug release profiles. In this pioneering study, gelatin-based microspheres crosslinked with tannic acid were developed to achieve sustained topical release of Ketoprofen. The microparticle system was produced through the single water-in-oil emulsification process and optimized by varying homogenization speed, crosslinking time, and molar ratio. Morphological, physicochemical, functional, and biological characterizations were conducted. The optimized formulation yielded spherical microspheres (5–35 µm) with high crosslinking efficiency and a controlled drug release profile over time. COX inhibition assays provided preliminary evidence that released Ketoprofen-retained inhibitory activity under the assay conditions, while cytocompatibility tests supported the short-term compatibility of the system within the tested concentration range. A qualitative wound-model test provided preliminary evidence of powder hydration, film formation, and macroscopic retention. Overall, tannic acid-crosslinked gelatin microspheres represent a biocompatible and promising platform for localized drug delivery of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory in wound management. Full article

Climate change and population growth are intensifying global food security challenges by reducing agricultural productivity and increasing reliance on fertilizers. In this context, developing sustainable and economically efficient agricultural solutions becomes essential. The study presents the synthesis of an interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) of hydrogels by combining bacterial cellulose (BC) with poly(acrylic acid) crosslinked with N, N-methylene-bis-acrylamide (PAA–co–MBA) via free radical copolymerization. To explore their potential as bioactive compound carriers, an ethanolic hydroalcoholic phytoextract (EHP) obtained from Hypericum perforatum L. and Melissa officinalis L. was directly encapsulated within the IPN hydrogels. The EHP is valued for its rich bioactive profile and antifungal, antimycobacterial, and antioxidant properties. The results of rheology measurements and thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) revealed that incorporating BC into the IPN hydrogels significantly enhanced the mechanical stiffness, thermal resistance, and overall stability of the resulting IPN structures. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) confirmed the structural organization and the porosity of the developed composite, as well as the successful fabrication of IPN hydrogels in the EHP medium. Under optimal conditions, the IPN hydrogels exhibited a reduced swelling capacity, thereby slowing the diffusion of the bioactive agents, reducing the application frequency, and enhancing the utilization efficiency. Taken together with the controlled-release performance, these findings demonstrate the potential of BC (PAA-co-MBA) IPN hydrogels as biodegradable and sustainable carrier systems for controlled delivery applications and suggest that they may be promising candidates for hydrogel-based agricultural delivery systems. Full article

Intelligent food packaging (IFP) is among the key technologies for overcoming global challenges of food safety and food resource waste. Its core lies in monitoring the quality of food in real-time without damage. Sodium alginate (SA), a natural polysaccharide characterized by biodegradability and excellent biocompatibility, can form hydrogels with a 3D network structure, high water content, and functional modification capability, making it an ideal matrix for developing IFP sensing and indicator platforms. Based on the gel chemistry fundamentals of SA, this paper deeply analyzes the structure-activity relationship between sensing mechanism and material structure, and summarizes the existing modification strategies and functional integration paths. The paper also provides a detailed discussion on the application principles and latest advancements of SA-based hydrogels in colorimetric/visual sensing, gas sensing, time-temperature indicator (TTI), and controlled-release carriers for active substances. The current research results show that the detection limit of SA hydrogel beads loaded with anthocyanins for volatile amines can reach 15–25 ppm, and the color difference ΔE can reach 34.2 after 7 days of storage at 4 °C, which is strongly correlated with microbial indicators, total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N), pH, etc. The color difference value (ΔE) response of Co-Imd microcrystalline functionalized SA film to ammonia gas reached 23.7 within 60 min, and it had antibacterial activity. The activation energy of Immobilization of laccase on sodium alginate/soluble starch microcapsules to develop a TTI (27.32–61.13 kJ/mol) was highly matched with the activation energy of Agaricus bisporus. The hydrogel microspheres loaded with Cur@Se reduced the total oxidation value of the oils by 53%. The G/SA/nZnOs cryogel pad extended the shelf life of shrimp from 4 days to 6 days at 4 °C. In addition, this paper also discusses the challenges faced by SA-based hydrogels in large-scale production and long-term stability evaluation, and looks forward to future development trends such as integration with artificial intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT), and multi-functional integration, in order to provide theoretical support for in-depth research and industrial application in this field. Full article