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Keywords = battery pack topologies

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15 pages, 3596 KiB  
Article
Fuzzy-Aided P–PI Control for Start-Up Current Overshoot Mitigation in Solid-State Lithium Battery Chargers
by Chih-Tsung Chang and Kai-Jun Pai
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(14), 7979; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15147979 - 17 Jul 2025
Viewed by 184
Abstract
A battery charger for solid-state lithium battery packs was developed and implemented. The power stage used a phase-shifted full-bridge converter integrated with a current-doubler rectifier and synchronous rectification. Dual voltage and current control loops were employed to enable constant-voltage and constant-current charging modes. [...] Read more.
A battery charger for solid-state lithium battery packs was developed and implemented. The power stage used a phase-shifted full-bridge converter integrated with a current-doubler rectifier and synchronous rectification. Dual voltage and current control loops were employed to enable constant-voltage and constant-current charging modes. To improve the lifespan of the output filter capacitor, the current-doubler rectifier was adopted to effectively reduce output current ripple. During the initial start-up phase, as the charger transitions from constant-voltage to constant-current output mode, the use of proportional–integral control in the voltage and current loop error amplifiers may cause current overshoot during the step-rising phase, primarily due to the integral action. Therefore, this study incorporated fuzzy control, proportional control, and proportional–integral control strategies into the current-loop error amplifier. This approach effectively reduced the current overshoot during the step-rising phase, preventing the charger from mistakenly triggering the overcurrent protection mode. The analysis and design considerations of the proposed circuit topology and control loop are presented. Experimental results agree with theoretical predictions, thereby confirming the validity of the proposed approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Electrical, Electronics and Communications Engineering)
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21 pages, 3527 KiB  
Article
Research on Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery Balancing Strategy for High-Power Energy Storage System
by Ren Zhou, Junyong Lu, Yiting Wu, Hehui Zhang and Kangwei Yan
Energies 2025, 18(14), 3671; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18143671 - 11 Jul 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 325
Abstract
For the problem of consistency decline during the long-term use of battery packs for high-voltage and high-power energy storage systems, a dynamic timing adjustment balancing strategy is proposed based on the charge–discharge topology. Compared with the traditional balancing strategy, the dynamic timing adjustment [...] Read more.
For the problem of consistency decline during the long-term use of battery packs for high-voltage and high-power energy storage systems, a dynamic timing adjustment balancing strategy is proposed based on the charge–discharge topology. Compared with the traditional balancing strategy, the dynamic timing adjustment balance strategy is more suitable for the transient high-frequency pulse and high-rate output of a high-power energy storage system. It gives full play to the pulse output adjustment function of the integrated charge–discharge topology. The advantages of this strategy include improving the balance between battery groups, the operating capacity of the system, and improving the continuous working ability of the system. Combined with the work condition of the high-power energy storage system, a balance control model is established, and a cycle charge–discharge test platform of battery packs is built. The effectiveness and advantages of the balance strategy of dynamic timing adjustment are verified by the experiment and simulations. The balancing time is less than 2 min, and the voltage difference is less than 6 mv. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section D: Energy Storage and Application)
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19 pages, 3871 KiB  
Review
A Comprehensive Review of the Art of Cell Balancing Techniques and Trade-Offs in Battery Management Systems
by Adnan Ashraf, Basit Ali, Mothanna S. A. Al Sunjury and Pietro Tricoli
Energies 2025, 18(13), 3321; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18133321 - 24 Jun 2025
Viewed by 713
Abstract
The battery pack is a critical component of electric vehicles, with lithium-ion cells being a frequently preferred choice. Lithium-ion cells are known for long life, high power and energy density, and are reliable for a broad range of temperatures. However, these batteries have [...] Read more.
The battery pack is a critical component of electric vehicles, with lithium-ion cells being a frequently preferred choice. Lithium-ion cells are known for long life, high power and energy density, and are reliable for a broad range of temperatures. However, these batteries have a drawback of over-voltage, under-voltage, thermal runaway, and especially, state of charge or voltage imbalance. Among these, the cell imbalance is particularly important because it causes an uneven power dissipation in each cell, resulting in non-uniform temperature distribution. This uneven temperature distribution negatively affects the lifetime and efficiency of a battery pack. Cell imbalance is mitigated by cell balancing techniques, of which several methods have been presented over the last few years. These methods consider different power electronics circuits and control approaches to optimise cell balancing characteristics. This paper reviews basic to advanced cell balancing techniques and compares their circuit designs, costs, switching stresses, complexity, sizes, and control techniques to highlight the recent trends and future directions. This paper also compares the recent trend of machine learning integration with basic cell balancing topologies and provides a critical analysis of the outcomes. Full article
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16 pages, 2116 KiB  
Article
Battery Active Grouping and Balancing Based on the Optimal Energy Transfer Direction
by Hongxia Wu, Hongfei Zhao, Junjie Yang, Dongchen Qin and Jiangyi Chen
Sustainability 2025, 17(11), 5219; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17115219 - 5 Jun 2025
Viewed by 429
Abstract
In this work, a battery active grouping equalization control strategy based on model predictive control (MPC) was proposed, which can promote cell consistency, equalization speed and energy loss during the battery equalization process. The dynamic group equalization topology based on reconfigurable circuits can [...] Read more.
In this work, a battery active grouping equalization control strategy based on model predictive control (MPC) was proposed, which can promote cell consistency, equalization speed and energy loss during the battery equalization process. The dynamic group equalization topology based on reconfigurable circuits can achieve dynamic grouping. Using a battery state observation estimator and the MPC controller, multiple non-adjacent cells can realize simultaneous equalization in a single equalization process. An algorithm is designed to determine the optimal energy transfer direction and the optimal equalization current. The objective function of this algorithm incorporates weight coefficients that represent the relative importance of equalization time and energy loss. Simulation tests are conducted to evaluate the battery pack state-of-charge (SOC) root mean square, average temperature, and equalization time under various weight coefficients. Compared with two other traditional equalization control strategies, the proposed strategy reduces the equalization time by 43.93%, decreases the battery pack SOC variance by 50.18%, and improves the energy transfer efficiency by 0.59%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Energy Sustainability)
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25 pages, 5401 KiB  
Article
Coupled Electro-Thermal FEM with Geometric Symmetry Constraints for Modular Battery Pack Design
by Yingshuai Liu, Chenxing Liu, Jianwei Tan and Guangdong Tian
Symmetry 2025, 17(6), 865; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym17060865 - 3 Jun 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 445
Abstract
This study investigates the structural integrity and dynamic behavior of symmetry-optimized battery pack systems for new energy vehicles through advanced finite element analysis. It examines symmetry-optimized battery pack systems with mechanically stable and thermally adaptive potentials. Leveraging geometric symmetry principles, a high-fidelity three-dimensional [...] Read more.
This study investigates the structural integrity and dynamic behavior of symmetry-optimized battery pack systems for new energy vehicles through advanced finite element analysis. It examines symmetry-optimized battery pack systems with mechanically stable and thermally adaptive potentials. Leveraging geometric symmetry principles, a high-fidelity three-dimensional (3D) model was constructed in SolidWorks 2023 and subjected to symmetry-constrained static analysis on ANSYS Workbench 2021 R1 platform. The structural performance was systematically evaluated under three critical asymmetric loading scenarios: emergency left/right turns and braking conditions, with particular attention to symmetric stress distribution patterns. The numerical results confirmed the initial design’s compliance with mechanical requirements while revealing symmetric deformation characteristics in dominant mode shapes. Building upon symmetry-enhanced topology configuration, a novel lightweight strategy was implemented by substituting Q235 steel with ZL104 aluminum alloy. While mechanical symmetry has been widely studied, thermal gradients in battery packs can induce asymmetric expansions. For example, uneven cooling may cause localized warping in aluminum alloy shells. This multiphysics effect must be integrated into symmetry constraints to ensure true stability. Symmetric material distribution optimization reduced the mass by 19% while maintaining structural stability, as validated through comparative static and modal analyses. Notably, the symmetric eigenfrequency arrangement in optimized modules effectively avoids common vehicle excitation bands (8–12 Hz/25–35 Hz), demonstrating significant resonance risk reduction through frequency redistribution. This research establishes a symmetry-driven design paradigm that systematically coordinates structural efficiency with dynamic reliability, providing critical insights for developing next-generation battery systems with balanced performance characteristics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Engineering and Materials)
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26 pages, 5460 KiB  
Article
Adaptive Recombination-Based Control Strategy for Cell Balancing in Lithium-Ion Battery Packs: Modeling and Simulation
by Khalid Hassan, Siaw Fei Lu and Thio Tzer Hwai Gilbert
Electronics 2025, 14(11), 2217; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics14112217 - 29 May 2025
Viewed by 538
Abstract
This paper presents a novel adaptive cell recombination strategy for balancing lithium-ion battery packs, targeting electric vehicle (EV) applications. The proposed method dynamically adjusts the series–parallel configuration of individual cells based on instantaneous state of charge (SoC) and load demand, without relying on [...] Read more.
This paper presents a novel adaptive cell recombination strategy for balancing lithium-ion battery packs, targeting electric vehicle (EV) applications. The proposed method dynamically adjusts the series–parallel configuration of individual cells based on instantaneous state of charge (SoC) and load demand, without relying on conventional DC-DC converters or passive components. A hardware-efficient switching topology using SPDT (Single Pole Double Throw) switches enables flexible recombination and fault isolation with minimal complexity. The control algorithm, implemented in MATLAB/Simulink, evaluates multiple cell-grouping configurations to optimize balancing speed, energy retention, and operational safety. Simulation results under charging, discharging, and resting conditions demonstrate up to 80% faster balancing compared to sequential methods, with significantly lower component count and minimal energy loss. Validation using Panasonic NCR18650PF cells confirms the model’s real-world applicability. The method offers a scalable, high-speed, and energy-efficient solution for integration into next-generation battery management systems (BMS), achieving performance gains typically reserved for more complex converter-based architectures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Power Electronics)
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16 pages, 5527 KiB  
Article
Li-Ion Battery Active–Passive Hybrid Equalization Topology for Low-Earth Orbit Power Systems
by Lin Zhu, Zihua Liu, Yong Lin, Zhe Li, Jian Qin, Xiaoguang Jin and Shujie Yan
Energies 2025, 18(10), 2463; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18102463 - 11 May 2025
Viewed by 424
Abstract
The lithium-ion battery equalization system is a critical component in Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite power supply systems, ensuring the consistency of battery cells, maximizing the utilization of battery pack capacity, and enhancing battery reliability and cycle life. In DC bus satellite power systems, [...] Read more.
The lithium-ion battery equalization system is a critical component in Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite power supply systems, ensuring the consistency of battery cells, maximizing the utilization of battery pack capacity, and enhancing battery reliability and cycle life. In DC bus satellite power systems, passive equalization technology is widely adopted due to its simple structure and ease of control. However, passive equalization suffers from drawbacks such as complex thermal design and limited operation primarily during battery charging. These limitations can lead to inconsistent control over the depth of discharge of individual battery cells, ultimately affecting the overall lifespan of the battery pack. In contrast, active equalization technology offers higher efficiency, faster equalization speeds, and the ability to utilize digital control methods, making it the mainstream direction for the development of lithium-ion battery equalization technology. Nevertheless, active equalization often requires a large number of switches and energy storage components, involves complex control algorithms, and faces challenges such as large size and reduced reliability. Most existing active equalization techniques are not directly applicable to DC bus satellite power systems. In this study, based on the operational characteristics of LEO satellite power storage batteries, an active–passive hybrid equalization topology utilizing a switching matrix is proposed. This topology combines the advantages of a simple structure, ease of control, and high reliability. Its feasibility has been validated through experimental results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Battery Energy Storage Systems)
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19 pages, 4869 KiB  
Article
New BMS Topology with Active Cell Balancing Between Electric Vehicles’ Traction and Auxiliary Batteries
by José Gabriel O. Pinto, Manuel Freitas Silva, Luis A. M. Barros and José A. Afonso
Batteries 2025, 11(5), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11050175 - 27 Apr 2025
Viewed by 1754
Abstract
This paper proposes a new topology for a battery management system (BMS) with active cell balancing capable of exchanging energy between an electric vehicle’s traction and auxiliary batteries. This topology facilitates energy exchange between any cell in the traction battery pack and with [...] Read more.
This paper proposes a new topology for a battery management system (BMS) with active cell balancing capable of exchanging energy between an electric vehicle’s traction and auxiliary batteries. This topology facilitates energy exchange between any cell in the traction battery pack and with the auxiliary battery. The proposed topology allows both the selection of the cells involved in the balancing process and the charging of the auxiliary battery, eliminating the need for a dedicated dc-dc isolated power converter. The flexibility of this topology allows the adoption of different balancing strategies, which can be used to improve balancing efficiency. The proposed topology was first analyzed through computer simulations, and a laboratory BMS prototype was developed. The results from the simulation and experimental tests validate the topology operation and its performance in transferring energy between the cells and the auxiliary battery. Full article
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15 pages, 4756 KiB  
Article
Inductor-Based Active Balancing Topology with Wide Voltage Range Capability
by Hourong Song, Branislav Hredzak and John Fletcher
Batteries 2025, 11(2), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020077 - 15 Feb 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1438
Abstract
With the increasing number of batteries integrated into the grid, the electrification of transportation, and the importance of reusing secondary batteries to preserve natural resources, active balancing techniques are becoming critical for optimizing battery performance, ensuring safety, and extending their lifespan. There is [...] Read more.
With the increasing number of batteries integrated into the grid, the electrification of transportation, and the importance of reusing secondary batteries to preserve natural resources, active balancing techniques are becoming critical for optimizing battery performance, ensuring safety, and extending their lifespan. There is a demand for battery management solutions that can efficiently manage the balancing of battery cells across a wide range of voltage levels. This paper proposes a new inductor-based active balancing topology that achieves balancing by transferring energy from battery cells to the battery pack. One of its main advantages over existing designs is that it can operate over a wide battery cell voltage range. Moreover, multicell balancing with a balancing current independent of the imbalance level can be achieved by adjusting the width and interval of pulses. The proposed topology can be implemented using traditional low-side gate driving integrated circuits, avoiding the need for expensive isolated power modules and high-side gate drivers. Sample balancer designs for low-voltage battery cells as well as higher-voltage cells are provided. The presented experimental results verify the operation of the proposed balancer on a lithium-ion battery pack. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Towards a Smarter Battery Management System: 2nd Edition)
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17 pages, 6890 KiB  
Article
An Inherent Decoupled Triple-Active Bridge Converter for All-Electric Aircraft DC Power Systems
by Giuseppe Bossi, Nicola Campagna, Mauro Boi, Rosario Miceli and Alfonso Damiano
Energies 2024, 17(24), 6368; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17246368 - 18 Dec 2024
Viewed by 952
Abstract
This paper focuses on a power conditioning system for an all-electric aircraft (AEA) powered by a single battery pack. The research project aims to identify a multi-port DC/DC converter topology that adequately supplies the two DC buses connected to the propulsion system and [...] Read more.
This paper focuses on a power conditioning system for an all-electric aircraft (AEA) powered by a single battery pack. The research project aims to identify a multi-port DC/DC converter topology that adequately supplies the two DC buses connected to the propulsion system and auxiliary equipment, respectively. To achieve this, a triple-active bridge (TAB) in its inherently decoupled configuration has been investigated, prototyped, and experimentally verified. The TAB voltage control system was designed, simulated, and experimentally validated. Specifically, start-up, steady-state and step-load performances were evaluated by the simulation study and then experimentally validated on a scaled prototype. The results assess the feasibility of using an inherently decoupled TAB as a power conditioning system for interconnecting the AEA battery pack with the electric propulsion and auxiliary systems. In particular, the developed TAB configuration secures the decoupled power transfer between the two output ports providing at the same time good dynamic performance in terms of voltage control during step-load variation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design and Control Strategies for Wide Input Range DC-DC Converters)
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21 pages, 4561 KiB  
Article
Optimizing EV Powertrain Performance and Sustainability through Constraint Prioritization in Nonlinear Model Predictive Control of Semi-Active Bidirectional DC-DC Converter with HESS
by P. S. Praveena Krishna, Jayalakshmi N. Sabhahit, Vidya S. Rao, Amit Saraswat, Hannah Chaplin Laugaland and Pramod Bhat Nempu
Sustainability 2024, 16(18), 8123; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16188123 - 18 Sep 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1485
Abstract
The global transportation sector is rapidly shifting towards electrification, aiming to create more sustainable environments. As a result, there is a significant focus on optimizing performance and increasing the lifespan of batteries in electric vehicles (EVs). To achieve this, the battery pack must [...] Read more.
The global transportation sector is rapidly shifting towards electrification, aiming to create more sustainable environments. As a result, there is a significant focus on optimizing performance and increasing the lifespan of batteries in electric vehicles (EVs). To achieve this, the battery pack must operate with constant current charging and discharging modes of operation. Further, in an EV powertrain, maintaining a constant DC link voltage at the input stage of the inverter is crucial for driving the motor load. To satisfy these two conditions simultaneously during the energy transfer, a hybrid energy storage system (HESS) consisting of a lithium–ion battery and a supercapacitor (SC) connected to the semi-active topology of the bidirectional DC–DC converter (SAT-BDC) in this research work. However, generating the duty cycle for the switches to regulate the operation of SAT-BDC is complex due to the simultaneous interaction of the two mentioned constraints: regulating the DC link voltage by tracking the reference and maintaining the battery current at a constant value. Therefore, this research aims to efficiently resolve the issue by incorporating a highly flexible nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC) to control the switches of SAT-BDC. Furthermore, the converter system design is tested for operational performance using MATLAB 2022B with the battery current and the DC link voltage with different priorities. In the NMPC approach, these constraints are carefully evaluated with varying prioritizations, representing a crucial trade-off in optimizing EV powertrain operation. The results demonstrate that battery current prioritization yields better performance than DC link voltage prioritization, extending the lifespan and efficiency of batteries. Thus, this research work further aligns with the conceptual realization of the sustainability goals by minimizing the environmental impact associated with battery production and disposal. Full article
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18 pages, 13225 KiB  
Article
AC Direct Charging for Electric Vehicles via a Reconfigurable Cascaded Multilevel Converter
by Giulia Tresca and Pericle Zanchetta
Energies 2024, 17(10), 2428; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17102428 - 19 May 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1377
Abstract
This paper presents a charging architecture for the Reconfigurable Cascaded Multilevel converter, which was specifically designed for electric vehicle (EV) powertrain applications. The RCMC topology is capable of executing power conversion and actively managing battery systems concurrently. The active battery management is achieved [...] Read more.
This paper presents a charging architecture for the Reconfigurable Cascaded Multilevel converter, which was specifically designed for electric vehicle (EV) powertrain applications. The RCMC topology is capable of executing power conversion and actively managing battery systems concurrently. The active battery management is achieved using the Reconfigurable Battery Module, which regulates the serial connection of cells via a switch pattern. In this paper, the RCMC is directly interfaced with an AC three-phase power system, facilitating the dynamic control over battery cells charging. Its inherent design allows for the implementation of various charging algorithms, customizable to specific requirements, without necessitating additional intermediary power stages. Firstly, an overview of the RCMC topology is given, and an analysis to define the optimal filter inductance is carried out. Subsequently, after the AC system characteristics are explained, two charging algorithms are presented and described: one prioritizes State of Charge (SOC) balancing among battery cells, while the other focuses on minimizing power losses. Moreover, a time estimation computation for the RCMC is carried out considering a two-level AC charging station. The result is compared with the time required for a conventional battery pack. The results show a reduction of 10 s in charging time for a mere 20% increase in SOC. Finally, the experimental setup is presented and used to validate the efficacy of the proposed algorithms. Full article
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13 pages, 8198 KiB  
Article
Controlling Algorithm of Reconfigurable Battery for State of Charge Balancing Using Amortized Q-Learning
by Dominic Karnehm, Wolfgang Bliemetsrieder, Sebastian Pohlmann and Antje Neve
Batteries 2024, 10(4), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040131 - 15 Apr 2024
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2889
Abstract
In the context of the electrification of the mobility sector, smart algorithms have to be developed to control battery packs. Smart and reconfigurable batteries are a promising alternative to conventional battery packs and offer new possibilities for operation and condition monitoring. This work [...] Read more.
In the context of the electrification of the mobility sector, smart algorithms have to be developed to control battery packs. Smart and reconfigurable batteries are a promising alternative to conventional battery packs and offer new possibilities for operation and condition monitoring. This work proposes a reinforcement learning (RL) algorithm to balance the State of Charge (SoC) of reconfigurable batteries based on the topologies half-bridge and battery modular multilevel management (BM3). As an RL algorithm, Amortized Q-learning (AQL) is implemented, which enables the control of enormous numbers of possible configurations of the reconfigurable battery as well as the combination of classical controlling approaches and machine learning methods. This enhances the safety mechanisms during control. As a neural network of the AQL, a Feedforward Neuronal Network (FNN) is implemented consisting of three hidden layers. The experimental evaluation using a 12-cell hybrid cascaded multilevel converter illustrates the applicability of the method to balance the SoC and maintain the balanced state during discharge. The evaluation shows a 20.3% slower balancing process compared to a conventional approach. Nevertheless, AQL shows great potential for multiobjective optimizations and can be applied as an RL algorithm for control in power electronics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Intelligent Battery Systems: Monitoring, Management, and Control)
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20 pages, 8087 KiB  
Article
Multi-Fault Diagnosis of Electric Vehicle Power Battery Based on Double Fault Window Location and Fast Classification
by Xiaowei Shen, Shuxian Lun and Ming Li
Electronics 2024, 13(3), 612; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13030612 - 1 Feb 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1616
Abstract
As energy supply units, lithium-ion batteries have been widely used in the electric vehicle industry. However, the safety of lithium-ion batteries remains a significant factor limiting their development. To achieve rapid fault diagnosis of lithium-ion batteries, this paper presents a comprehensive fault diagnosis [...] Read more.
As energy supply units, lithium-ion batteries have been widely used in the electric vehicle industry. However, the safety of lithium-ion batteries remains a significant factor limiting their development. To achieve rapid fault diagnosis of lithium-ion batteries, this paper presents a comprehensive fault diagnosis process. Firstly, an interleaved voltage sensor topology structure is utilized to acquire battery voltage data. An improved complete ensemble empirical mode decomposition with adaptive noise method is introduced to process data. Then, the reconstructed voltage data sequence is used to eliminate the influence of noise. A fault location is performed using dichotomy correlation coefficient and time window correlation coefficient. Afterwards, principal component analysis is used to select the principal components with high contribution rate as classification features. The gray wolf optimization algorithm is used to find the parameters of the least squares support vector machine, constructing an optimal classifier for fault classification. A fault experiment platform is established to realize the physical triggering of faults such as external short circuit, internal circuit, and connection of experimental battery packs. Finally, the accuracy and reliability of the method are verified by the results of fault localization and fault type determination. Full article
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20 pages, 5866 KiB  
Article
Wide-Load-Range Double-T Resonant Converter for CC/CV Battery Charging
by Xile Wei, Yicheng Shi, Gang Li, Zhen Zhang and Siyuan Chang
Electronics 2024, 13(3), 533; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13030533 - 29 Jan 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1904
Abstract
This article proposes a load-independent constant current (CC) or constant voltage (CV) output Double-T circuit (DT) for electrical vehicles (EVs) or electrical bikes (EBs) charging systems to improve the conversion efficiency over a wide-load range during battery charging processes. Among available studies, the [...] Read more.
This article proposes a load-independent constant current (CC) or constant voltage (CV) output Double-T circuit (DT) for electrical vehicles (EVs) or electrical bikes (EBs) charging systems to improve the conversion efficiency over a wide-load range during battery charging processes. Among available studies, the LLC converter is a widely adopted resonant topology for EV or EB charging. However, in CC-CV charging, the wide output voltage caused by the wide-load range requires a wide switching frequency range to achieve, which decreases the efficiency in the wide-load range. To address such issues, in this article, two T-circuits are cascaded to form an output load-independent DT with fixed duty cycle and frequency, which can implement CC-CV modes and zero phase angle at the resonant frequency simultaneously, which not only significantly reduces reactive power in energy storage elements but also eliminates the adverse effect of efficiency reduction owing to switching frequency variation. Finally, based on experimental results, the variation of current in CC mode is within 4.18%, and that of voltage is within 4.44% in CV mode, which demonstrates the inherent load-independent capability of the DT converter. During the battery pack charging experiment, the peak dc-dc conversion efficiency reached 96.70% and the average conversion efficiency was higher than 94.01%. Full article
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