Search Results (14)

The European Union is committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions across all sectors, including the transportation sector. It is possible to assume that road freight transport will need to undergo technological changes, leading to greater use of alternative powertrains. This article builds on previous research on the energy consumption of battery electric trucks (BETs) and assesses the economic efficiency of electric vehicles in freight transport through a cost calculation. The primary objective was to determine the conditions under which a BET becomes cost-effective for a transport operator. These findings are practically relevant for freight carriers. Unlike other studies, this article does not focus on total cost of ownership (TCO) but rather compares the variable and fixed costs of BETs and conventional internal combustion engine trucks (ICETs). In this article, the operating costs of BETs were calculated and modeled based on real-world measurements of a tested vehicle. The research findings indicate that BETs are economically efficient, primarily when state subsidies are provided, compensating for the significant difference in purchase costs between BETs and conventional diesel trucks. This study found that optimizing operational conditions (daily routes) enables BETs to reach a break-even point at approximately 110,000 km per year, even without subsidies. Another significant finding is that battery capacity degradation leads to a projected annual operating cost increase of approximately 4%. Full article

Road freight transport is the key driver of the European economy and society; thus, distortion of its operation would have negative influence on growth and well-being. For that reason, implementation of European policies, including transport decarbonization, should be comprehensively evaluated from an environmental, social and economic perspective. In that case, introduction of electric trucks will create a mutual impact on the market and on haulage companies. The main research problem is to assess the future impact of decarbonization on the international road freight transport market structure on the supply side and the competitiveness of companies operating there. Today, a number of small and medium companies, to a great extent from Eastern Europe, render transportation services, creating a competitive structure with high flexibility, accessibility and low prices. Shifting towards electric trucks, with significantly higher upfront costs, will redefine the market structure, eliminating the small carriers and activating horizontal integration. The key objective of this research is to identify the main factors and challenges related to electric truck implementation and define crucial areas of its impact on future market structure. The research shows that the improvement of environmental performance requires low- or zero-emission trucks, where the battery technology is a leading solution. Thus, fleet renewal needs additional financial support from the public side. Different measures are available in European countries, so the level of support is not equal from a competitiveness perspective. Battery truck selling, as well as sustainable strategies, refer mostly to huge transport companies. On the other hand, the case of Polish truckers shows that the economic viability of SMEs is poor; thus, the introduction of BET would be beyond its reach. The research findings could be treated as recommendations for market regulators (EC), where the tempo of implementation, as well as availability of public support programs, should be rethinking. As a result, the costs of the transition will be covered by citizens, as customers, in the prices of products and transport service, or as taxpayers, in public support programs, mainly consumed by large market stakeholders. Full article

Heavy goods transportation is responsible for around 27% of CO₂ emissions from road transport in the EU and for 5% of total CO₂ emissions in the EU. The decarbonization of long-distance transport in particular remains a major challenge. The combination of battery electric trucks (BETs) with on-route high-power charging (HPC) offers a promising solution. Planning and setting up the required infrastructure is a critical success factor here. We propose a methodology to evaluate the charging infrastructure needed to support the large-scale introduction of heavy-duty BETs in Germany, considering different levels of electrification, taking the European driving and rest time regulations into account. Our analysis employs MATSim, an activity-based multi-agent transport simulation, to assess potential bottlenecks in the charging infrastructure and to simulate the demand-based distribution of charging stations. The MATSim simulation is combined with an extensive pre-processing of transport-related data and a suitable post-processing. This approach allows for a detailed examination of the required charging infrastructure, considering the impacts of depot charging solutions and the dynamic nature of truck movements and charging needs. The results indicate a significant need to augment HPC with substantial low power overnight charging facilities and highlight the importance of strategic infrastructure development to accommodate the growing demand for chargers for BETs. By simulating various scenarios of electrification, we demonstrate the critical role of demand-oriented infrastructure planning in reducing emissions from the road freight sector until 2030. This study contributes to the ongoing discourse on sustainable transportation, offering insights into the infrastructure requirements and planning challenges associated with the transition to battery electric heavy-duty vehicles. Full article

This paper reviews the existing studies employing total cost of ownership (TCO) analysis to evaluate the comparative economic viability of battery electric trucks (BETs) and diesel trucks (DTs). A key finding is that until recent years, BETs have not been cost-competitive with DTs. Light-duty trucks and medium-duty trucks started to become competitive in 2021 (1) according to some estimates, whereas heavy-duty trucks might remain to be not competitive even in future decades. However, (2) TCO estimates differ across continents. (3) The combing effect of fuel prices and taxes is most likely responsible for the fact that BETs enjoy a stronger competitive position relative to DTs in Europe, Asia, and Oceania, whereas, in North America, most estimates assign them poor competitiveness, both presently and in the coming years. (4) Most studies underline that significant cost disproportions persist in the heavy-duty truck segment due to its demanding operational requirements and a lack of robust high-powered charging infrastructure. Consequently, substantial financial incentives and subsidies will be required for heavy-duty trucks to enhance their economic viability, potentially accelerating cost parity from post-2035 to the near future. This paper identifies several constraints in its TCO analysis, including limited data on residual values, variability in discount rates, depreciation costs, and a lack of longitudinal and market data for BETs. Full article

The present work intends to make a scientific contribution to future drive technology in medium-duty road freight transportation that is as objective and fact-based as possible. In cooperation with a medium-sized forwarding company, 1-day transports, previously driven with diesel trucks, were examined. Using a physically based model, which was first validated by comparing simulated CNG drive data with real-world diesel data, the findings were transferred to battery electric trucks (BETs) and fuel cell trucks (FCETs) and extrapolated to 2050 based on expected technological developments. The model makes statements based on the results of the investigated application regarding specific consumption, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, consumption shares and recuperation. The CNG combustion technology (ICET-CNG) serves as a reference. BETs in this application have the lowest emission and consumption values: BET₂₀₅₀ will consume a third of the energy and emit a fifth of the GHGs of ICET-CNG₂₀₂₄. The weight of the battery leads to higher consumption values. FCETs have higher fuel consumption due to their longer drive trains. This is partially compensated by their lower weight: FCET₂₀₅₀ will consume 40% of the energy and emit a third of the GHGs of ICET₂₀₂₄. In long-distance traffic, aerodynamic drag is the dominant consumption factor, accounting for 40%, which should be addressed in further truck development. Recuperation extends the range by 3–7%. Full article

Charge management, which lowers charging costs for fleets and prevents straining the electrical grid, is critical to the successful deployment of medium- and heavy-duty battery-electric trucks (MHD BETs). This study introduces an energy demand and cost management framework that optimizes depot charging for MHD BETs by combining an energy consumption machine learning model and a linear program optimization model. The framework considers key factors impacting real-world MHD BET operations, including vehicle and charger configurations, duty cycles, use cases, geographic and climate conditions, operation schedules, and utilities’ time-of-use (TOU) rates and demand charges. The framework was applied to a hypothetical fleet of 100 MHD BETs in California under three different utilities for 365 days, with results compared to unmanaged charging. The optimized charging solution avoided more than 90% of on-peak charging, reduced fleet charging peak load by 64–75%, and lowered fleet energy variable costs by 54–64%. This study concluded that the proposed charge management framework significantly reduces energy costs and peak loads for MHD BET fleets while making recommendations for fleet electrification infrastructure planning and the design of utility TOU rates and demand charges. Full article

As the transportation industry seeks sustainable alternatives to internal combustion engine trucks (ICET), understanding the dynamics behind battery electric truck (BET) adoption becomes essential. This paper explores the critical factors influencing the procurement decision for BET in the freight transportation sector, employing a novel combination of fuzzy logic and the Delphi method to bridge qualitative assessments and quantitative analysis. Through a comprehensive literature review and expert consultations via the Delphi method, the research identifies the barriers to BET adoption, including initial investment costs, charging infrastructure, and legislative clarity. Fuzzy logic is then applied to model these factors’ impacts on the purchasing decision, translating subjective judgments into a structured analytical framework. This approach enables the assessment of BETs’ viability against ICETs, considering the total cost of ownership (TCO), travel time (TT) ratios, and perceived social benefits. While economic factors primarily drive the purchasing decision, the study reveals that social utility also plays a crucial role. This research contributes to the sustainable transportation literature by offering a detailed model of the decision-making process for BET procurement, providing valuable insights for industry professionals, policymakers, and academics committed to advancing environmentally friendly freight solutions. Full article

The electrification of heavy-duty trucks stands as a critical and challenging cornerstone in the low-carbon transition of the transportation sector. This paper employs the total cost of ownership (TCO) as the economic evaluation metric, framed within the context of China’s ambitious goals for heavy truck electrification by 2035. A detailed TCO model is developed, encompassing not only the vehicles but also their related energy replenishing infrastructures. This comprehensive approach enables a sophisticated examination of the economic feasibility for different deployment contexts of both fuel cell and battery electric heavy-duty trucks, emphasizing renewable energy utilization. This study demonstrates that in the context where both fuel cell components and hydrogen energy are costly, fuel cell trucks (FCTs) exhibit a significantly higher TCO compared to battery electric trucks (BETs). Specifically, for a 16 ton truck with a 500 km range, the TCO for the FCT is 0.034 USD/tkm, representing a 122% increase over its BET counterpart. In the case of a 49 ton truck designed for a 1000 km range, the TCO for the FCT is 0.024 USD/tkm, marking a 36% premium compared to the BET model. The technological roadmap suggests a narrowing cost disparity between FCTs and BETs by 2035. For the aforementioned 16 ton truck model, the projected TCO for the FCT is expected to be 0.016 USD/tkm, which is 58% above the BET, and for the 49 ton variant, it is anticipated at 0.012 USD per ton-kilometer, narrowing the difference to just 4.5% relative to BET. Further analysis within this study on the influences of renewable energy pricing and operational range on FCT and BET costs highlights a pivotal finding: for the 49 ton truck, achieving TCO parity between FCTs and BETs is feasible when renewable energy electricity prices fall to 0.022 USD/kWh or when the operational range extends to 1890 km. This underscores the critical role of energy costs and efficiency in bridging the cost gap between FCTs and BETs. Full article

Battery electric trucks (BETs) represent a well-suited option for decarbonizing road freight transport to achieve climate targets in the European Union. However, lower ranges than the daily distance of up to 700 km make charging stops mandatory. This paper presents an online algorithm for optimal dynamic charging strategies for long-haul BET based on a dynamic programming approach. In several case studies, we investigate the advantages optimal strategies can bring compared to driver decisions. We further show which charging infrastructure characteristics in terms of charging power, density, and charging station availability should be achieved for BETs in long-haul applications to keep the additional time required for charging stops low. In doing so, we consider the dynamic handling of occupied charging stations for the first time in the context of BET. Our findings show that, compared to driver decisions, optimal charging strategies can reduce the time loss by half compared to diesel trucks. To keep the time loss compared to a diesel truck below 30 min a day, a BET with a 500 kWh battery would need a charging point every 50 km on average, a distributed charging power between 700 and 1500 kW, and an average charger availability above 75%. The presented method and the case studies’ results’ plausibility are interpreted within a comprehensive sensitivity analysis and subsequently discussed in detail. Finally, we transformed our findings into concrete recommendations for action for the efficient rollout of BETs in long-haul applications. Full article

With growing demands to save greenhouse gases, the rapid market introduction of battery-electric trucks (BETs) will become increasingly important, with truck manufacturers announcing various models entering the market in the near future. Soon, truck operators will be faced with deciding which battery capacity and cell chemistry to choose in their next purchase. In this study, we evaluate the choice of battery capacity, regarding feasibility and cost-effectiveness, for trucks using NMC and LFP cell chemistry. Our results show that higher energy density allows larger NMC batteries to be installed, resulting in the ability to transport higher payloads at low charging powers. The LFP chemistry has to rely on higher charging powers of up to 700 $\mathrm{kW}$ to transport the same payloads. When asked to choose a battery capacity for the individual use case, the smallest battery size should always be selected when only charging powers up to 300 $\mathrm{kW}$ are available. However, the reduction in publicly charged energy can lead to cost advantages of larger battery capacities at higher charging powers. When deciding between the two cell chemistries, the LFP chemistry shows advantages in most cases. Only at high payloads and low charging powers the NMC chemistry shows cost advantages. Full article

Driven by new regulations concerning greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the transportation sector, battery-electric trucks (BETs) are considered one of the sustainable freight transportation solutions. In this paper, a dispatching problem of the BET fleet is formulated as a capacitated electric vehicle routing problem (VRP) with pick-up and delivery. As the BET dispatching problem is NP-hard, the performance of existing approaches deteriorates in large instance problems, especially when the customers have different preferences and constraints. This article proposes a bi-level strategy that incorporates routing zone partitioning and metaheuristic-based vehicle routing to solve the large-scale BET dispatching problem, considering the delivery types, limited travel distances, and cargo payloads. We apply this strategy to a real-world fleet dispatching scenario with around 300 customer positions for pickups and drop-offs. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed bi-level strategy can reduce total travel distance and travel time by 24–31%, compared to the baseline strategy implemented in the real world. Full article

Cutting greenhouse gas emissions to comply with the Paris Agreement is challenging for road freight. While heavy-duty battery-electric trucks (BET) promise tremendous and immediate reduction potential, literature increasingly confirms technical feasibility in general, and several manufacturers launched BET models. However, their real-world application is still being questioned by fleet owners due to the limited range or payload penalties. Thus, our case study aims to assess the technical feasibility of urban and regional delivery in Germany based on real-world and per-vehicle operational data that feed into an energy simulation with Monte-Carlo modeling. Our results demonstrate the importance of vehicle-specific examination for the right battery capacity that ideally matches the vehicle’s operating profile. We find that full electrification may be most accessible for 18-t and 26-t rigid solo trucks, soon followed by tractor-trailers, while truck-trailers turn out as most challenging. With up to 600 kWh battery capacity available in all truck classes, we find nearly 40% of all transport performance and 60% of all diesel trucks may be replaced with BET—while already 400 kWh is sufficient for half of all trucks. Additional measures such as intermediate charging and adjusted and more flexible truck-tour allocation may significantly accelerate electrification. Full article

Heavy-duty trucks (HDTs) are responsible for considerable fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) in the road transportation sector due to their heavier weight, and significantly more miles travelled in comparison with other vehicles. Regarding the climate change mitigation policies, HDTs need to become zero-emission vehicles. One of the technological solutions in this sector is the battery electric truck (BET). This paper includes a systematic review on relevant studies in the field of BETs, including the following: (1) the technical, stakeholder, and customer aspects in terms of charging solutions to give a comprehensive insight into their technological advantages and disadvantages; (2) the total cost of ownership (TCO) for BETs and diesel trucks; and (3) a CO₂ life cycle assessment (LCA) from different technologies. Moreover, the result is formulated in the form of SWOT analysis to describe the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of different charging technologies. Moreover, the different calculation methods of the total cost of ownership for the heavy-duty battery trucks and diesel trucks are compared. In addition, the CO₂ LCA is analyzed, and the different estimation methods of the CO₂ released in the environment are compared, which includes the CO₂ emissions during mobility operations and during the different manufacturing processes. Full article

Medium and heavy-duty battery electric trucks (BETs) may play a key role in mitigating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from road freight transport. However, technological challenges such as limited range and cargo carrying capacity as well as the required charging time need to be efficiently addressed before the large-scale adoption of BETs. In this study, we apply a geospatial data analysis approach by using a battery electric vehicle potential (BEVPO) model with the datasets of road freight transport surveys for analyzing the potential of large-scale BET adoption in Finland and Switzerland for trucks with gross vehicle weight (GVW) of over 3.5 t. Our results show that trucks with payload capacities up to 30 t have the most potential for electrification by relying on the currently available battery and plug-in charging technology, with 93% (55% tkm) and 89% (84% tkm) trip coverage in Finland and Switzerland, respectively. Electric road systems (ERSs) would be essential for covering 51% trips (41% tkm) of heavy-duty trucks heavier than 30 t in Finland. Furthermore, range-extender technology could improve the trip electrification potential by 3–10 percentage points (4–12 percentage points of tkm). Full article