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27 pages, 1665 KiB  
Article
A Heuristic Optical Flow Scheduling Algorithm for Low-Delay Vehicular Visible Light Communication
by Zhengying Cai, Shumeng Lei, Jingyi Li, Chen Yu, Junyu Liu and Guoqiang Gong
Photonics 2025, 12(7), 693; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics12070693 - 9 Jul 2025
Viewed by 209
Abstract
Vehicular visible light communication (VVLC) with ultralow electromagnetic interference has great potential to propel the growth of the Internet of Vehicles (IoV). However, ensuring quick response times and minimal delays in VVLC is a significant challenge brought on by fast-moving vehicles. In response [...] Read more.
Vehicular visible light communication (VVLC) with ultralow electromagnetic interference has great potential to propel the growth of the Internet of Vehicles (IoV). However, ensuring quick response times and minimal delays in VVLC is a significant challenge brought on by fast-moving vehicles. In response to this problem, we propose a heuristic optical flow scheduling algorithm. First, the optical flow scheduling problem of VVLC is built as a multi-objective optimization model considering the makespan, delay, schedulable ratio, and bandwidth utilization with non-conflict constraints. Second, an improved artificial plant community (APC) algorithm with enhanced global and local search capabilities is proposed to achieve low-delay communication for time-sensitive optical flows. Finally, a series of benchmark experiments are conducted to show that the proposed algorithm can efficiently schedule optical flows with minimal delay. The cost of this algorithm is very low, and it is suitable for deployment on edge computing platforms such as vehicles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Advances in Optical Wireless Communication)
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6 pages, 1840 KiB  
Brief Report
Compact and High-Efficiency Liquid-Crystal-on-Silicon for Augmented Reality Displays
by Zhenyi Luo, Yuqiang Ding, Fenglin Peng, Ziqian He, Yun Wang and Shin-Tson Wu
Photonics 2024, 11(7), 669; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics11070669 - 17 Jul 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2087
Abstract
Compact and high efficiency microdisplays are essential for lightweight augmented reality (AR) glasses to ensure longtime wearing comfort. Liquid-crystal-on-silicon (LCoS) is a promising candidate because of its high-resolution density, high brightness, and low cost. However, its bulky illumination system with a polarizing beam [...] Read more.
Compact and high efficiency microdisplays are essential for lightweight augmented reality (AR) glasses to ensure longtime wearing comfort. Liquid-crystal-on-silicon (LCoS) is a promising candidate because of its high-resolution density, high brightness, and low cost. However, its bulky illumination system with a polarizing beam splitter (PBS) cube remains an urgent issue to be overcome. To reduce the volume of the LCoS illumination system, here, we propose a compact structure with four thin PBS cuboids. Through simulations, the optical efficiency of 36.7% for an unpolarized input light can be achieved while maintaining reasonably good spatial uniformity. Such a novel design is expected to have a significant impact on future compact and lightweight AR glasses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Liquid Crystals in Photonics II)
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13 pages, 28796 KiB  
Article
Enhancing a Display’s Sunlight Readability with Tone Mapping
by Yizhou Qian, Sung-Chun Chen, En-Lin Hsiang, Hajime Akimoto, Chih-Lung Lin and Shin-Tson Wu
Photonics 2024, 11(6), 578; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics11060578 - 20 Jun 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2511
Abstract
The sunlight readability of display devices, such as notebook computers, transparent displays, vehicle displays, and augmented reality, is a significant technical challenge due to degraded image quality. To mitigate this problem, by fitting the human eye function, we propose a tone mapping method [...] Read more.
The sunlight readability of display devices, such as notebook computers, transparent displays, vehicle displays, and augmented reality, is a significant technical challenge due to degraded image quality. To mitigate this problem, by fitting the human eye function, we propose a tone mapping method on a mobile phone display panel to enhance low grayscale image readability under bright ambient light. Additionally, we adapt a mini-LED backlight model to simulate real images under different ambient lighting conditions. Both experimental and simulated results indicate that high luminance displays with an optimized gamma value significantly enhance sunlight readability and image quality. Moreover, global color rendering can alleviate color shift. Such a method is also valid for the optimization of optical see-through devices under diverse environmental conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue On-Chip Photonics)
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10 pages, 3413 KiB  
Article
High-Efficiency Vertical-Chip Micro-Light-Emitting Diodes via p-GaN Optimization and Surface Passivation
by Yizhou Qian, En-Lin Hsiang, Yu-Hsin Huang, Kuan-Heng Lin and Shin-Tson Wu
Crystals 2024, 14(6), 503; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14060503 - 25 May 2024
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2565
Abstract
Micro-LEDs have found widespread applications in modular large-screen TVs, automotive displays, and high-resolution-density augmented reality glasses. However, these micron-sized LEDs experience a significant efficiency reduction due to the defects originating from the dry etching process. By controlling the current distribution via engineering the [...] Read more.
Micro-LEDs have found widespread applications in modular large-screen TVs, automotive displays, and high-resolution-density augmented reality glasses. However, these micron-sized LEDs experience a significant efficiency reduction due to the defects originating from the dry etching process. By controlling the current distribution via engineering the electrode size, electrons will be less concentrated in the defect region. In this work, we propose a blue InGaN/GaN compound parabolic concentrator micro-LED with a metallic sidewall to boost efficiency by combining both an optical dipole cloud model and electrical TCAD (Technology Computer-Aided Design) model. By merely modifying the p-GaN contact size, the external quantum efficiency (EQE) can be improved by 15.6%. By further optimizing the passivation layer thickness, the EQE can be boosted by 52.1%, which helps enhance the display brightness or lower power consumption. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Organic Crystalline Materials)
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11 pages, 3755 KiB  
Article
High-Performance Tandem White Micro-OLEDs for Virtual Reality and Mixed Reality Displays
by Zhiyong Yang, En-Lin Hsiang and Shin-Tson Wu
Crystals 2024, 14(4), 332; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14040332 - 31 Mar 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3367
Abstract
To achieve wide-gamut and high-efficiency tandem white OLED (WOLED) microdisplays, we propose a new structure leveraging high-order antinodes and patterned microcavities. The color gamut coverages of 95% Rec. 2020 and 92% Rec. 2020 can be achieved in B/G/R tandem WOLED with a moderate [...] Read more.
To achieve wide-gamut and high-efficiency tandem white OLED (WOLED) microdisplays, we propose a new structure leveraging high-order antinodes and patterned microcavities. The color gamut coverages of 95% Rec. 2020 and 92% Rec. 2020 can be achieved in B/G/R tandem WOLED with a moderate microcavity and B/YG tandem WOLED with a strong microcavity, respectively. We have also boosted the optical efficiency by 62% for the tandem B/YG WOLED using the high-order antinodes at optimal conditions. Such a WOLED microdisplay helps reduce the power consumption of virtual reality (VR) and mixed reality (MR) displays while keeping a wide color gamut. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Organic Crystalline Materials)
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13 pages, 14665 KiB  
Article
Coarse Integral Volumetric Imaging Display with Time and Polarization Multiplexing
by Garimagai Borjigin, Yuqiang Ding, John Semmen, Hosna Tajvidi Safa, Hideki Kakeya and Shin-Tson Wu
Photonics 2024, 11(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/photonics11010007 - 21 Dec 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2039
Abstract
This paper introduces an innovative approach to integral volumetric imaging employing time and polarization multiplexing techniques to present volumetric three-dimensional images. Traditional integral volumetric imaging systems with a coarse lens array often face moiré pattern issues stemming from layered panel structures. In response, [...] Read more.
This paper introduces an innovative approach to integral volumetric imaging employing time and polarization multiplexing techniques to present volumetric three-dimensional images. Traditional integral volumetric imaging systems with a coarse lens array often face moiré pattern issues stemming from layered panel structures. In response, our proposed system utilizes a combination of time and polarization multiplexing to achieve two focal planes using a single display panel. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Liquid Crystals in Photonics)
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12 pages, 4211 KiB  
Article
Human Eye Contrast Sensitivity to Vehicle Displays under Strong Ambient Light
by Yizhou Qian, Zhiyong Yang, En-Lin Hsiang, Qian Yang, Kevin Nilsen, Yu-Hsin Huang, Kuan-Heng Lin and Shin-Tson Wu
Crystals 2023, 13(9), 1384; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst13091384 - 18 Sep 2023
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3199
Abstract
Vehicle displays are becoming more integrated into our daily lives. Achieving a premium driving experience demands the display panel to have high-resolution density and sufficient brightness, particularly when exposed to intense ambient light, as direct sunlight can obscure the displayed images. Combining Barten’s [...] Read more.
Vehicle displays are becoming more integrated into our daily lives. Achieving a premium driving experience demands the display panel to have high-resolution density and sufficient brightness, particularly when exposed to intense ambient light, as direct sunlight can obscure the displayed images. Combining Barten’s model and diffraction theory, the performance of both infotainment displays and head-up displays (HUDs) is evaluated. For infotainment displays, over 800 nit brightness is essential for the driver to discern 55 pixel-per-degree (PPD) patterns under direct sunlight. For HUDs, a delicate balance between resolution density, brightness, transparency, and image quality must be exercised. By slightly reducing the resolution density to 50 PPD, the transparent micro-LED panel can concurrently achieve a reduced background image blur, low required display brightness (~4000 nits), and high background transmittance (~90%). Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Liquid Crystals)
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12 pages, 3185 KiB  
Article
Reducing the Power Consumption of VR Displays with a Field Sequential Color LCD
by Zhiyong Yang, Yizhou Qian, Junyu Zou, Chia-Lun Lee, Chih-Lung Lin and Shin-Tson Wu
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(4), 2635; https://doi.org/10.3390/app13042635 - 18 Feb 2023
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4258
Abstract
To achieve 60 pixels per degree (PPD) and 100° field of view (FoV) while keeping a reasonably high aperture ratio for active-matrix liquid crystal displays (LCDs), field sequential color (FSC) is a promising approach. We evaluate the physical properties of a high birefringence [...] Read more.
To achieve 60 pixels per degree (PPD) and 100° field of view (FoV) while keeping a reasonably high aperture ratio for active-matrix liquid crystal displays (LCDs), field sequential color (FSC) is a promising approach. We evaluate the physical properties of a high birefringence nematic LC mixture and then use these data to simulate the performance of a fringe-field switching (FFS) LCD. Such an FFS LCD exhibits a fast average gray-to-gray response time (~1.5 ms) to enable FSC operation. By removing the spatial color filters, FSC operation triples the resolution density and optical efficiency, which are critical to high-resolution density and low power consumption virtual reality applications. Wide color gamut (96.2% of the DCI-P3 standard) and superior color uniformity are also demonstrated using such an FSC LCD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Liquid Crystal Materials and Applications)
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16 pages, 4168 KiB  
Article
A Molecular Electron Density Theory Study of the [3+2] Cycloaddition Reaction of an Azomethine Ylide with an Electrophilic Ethylene Linked to Triazole and Ferrocene Units
by Luis R. Domingo, Mar Ríos-Gutiérrez and Assem Barakat
Molecules 2022, 27(19), 6532; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27196532 - 3 Oct 2022
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2843
Abstract
The [3+2] cycloaddition (32CA) reaction of an azomethine ylide (AY) with an electrophilic ethylene linked to triazole and ferrocene units has been studied within the Molecular Electron Density Theory (MEDT) at the ωB97X-D/6-311G(d,p) level. The topology of the electron localization function (ELF) [...] Read more.
The [3+2] cycloaddition (32CA) reaction of an azomethine ylide (AY) with an electrophilic ethylene linked to triazole and ferrocene units has been studied within the Molecular Electron Density Theory (MEDT) at the ωB97X-D/6-311G(d,p) level. The topology of the electron localization function (ELF) of this AY allows classifying it as a pseudo(mono)radical species characterized by the presence of two monosynaptic basins, integrating a total of 0.76 e, at the C1 carbon. While the ferrocene ethylene has a strong electrophilic character, the AY is a supernucleophile, suggesting that the corresponding 32CA reaction has a high polar character and a low activation energy. The most favorable ortho/endo reaction path presents an activation enthalpy of 8.7 kcal·mol−1, with the 32CA reaction being exergonic by −42.1 kcal·mol−1. This reaction presents a total endo stereoselectivity and a total ortho regioselectivity. Analysis of the global electron density transfer (GEDT) at the most favorable TS-on (0.23 e) accounts for the high polar character of this 32CA reaction, classified as forward electron density flux (FEDF). The formation of two intermolecular hydrogen bonds between the two interacting frameworks at the most favorable TS-on accounts for the unexpected ortho regioselectivity experimentally observed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metal-Based Complex: Preparation and Medicinal Characteristics)
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8 pages, 1814 KiB  
Article
High-Precision Beam Angle Expander Based on Polymeric Liquid Crystal Polarization Lenses for LiDAR Applications
by Yannanqi Li, Zhenyi Luo and Shin-Tson Wu
Crystals 2022, 12(3), 349; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst12030349 - 4 Mar 2022
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 4151
Abstract
A novel beam steering angle expander is demonstrated by cascading two polymeric liquid crystal polarization lenses with different diopters. The lens module performs as a planar telescope, which has features such as a light weight, low cost, and high precision. The magnifier offers [...] Read more.
A novel beam steering angle expander is demonstrated by cascading two polymeric liquid crystal polarization lenses with different diopters. The lens module performs as a planar telescope, which has features such as a light weight, low cost, and high precision. The magnifier offers wide-angle, continuous steering when integrated with an active fine-angle beam steering device. The potential application for LiDAR is emphasized. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Frontiers in Optics of Liquid Crystals and Displays)
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10 pages, 4063 KiB  
Article
Performance Comparison between Mini-LED Backlit LCD and OLED Display for 15.6-Inch Notebook Computers
by Zhiyong Yang, En-Lin Hsiang, Yizhou Qian and Shin-Tson Wu
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(3), 1239; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12031239 - 25 Jan 2022
Cited by 39 | Viewed by 7143
Abstract
We evaluated and compared the performance of a 15.6-inch mini-LED backlit LCD (mLCD) with a commercial OLED (organic light-emitting diode) panel. Both displays exhibited outstanding properties, but the mLCD had advantages in peak brightness, gamma curve, luminance uniformity at low gray scales, color [...] Read more.
We evaluated and compared the performance of a 15.6-inch mini-LED backlit LCD (mLCD) with a commercial OLED (organic light-emitting diode) panel. Both displays exhibited outstanding properties, but the mLCD had advantages in peak brightness, gamma curve, luminance uniformity at low gray scales, color volume, power consumption, and ambient contrast ratio. In comparison with previous measurement methods, our color measurement adopted the reference method recently recommended by the International Committee for Display Metrology (ICDM). The LMK imaging photometer with a high-resolution CMOS sensor was employed to characterize the halo effect and reconstruct the real luminance profiles based on the non-ideal luminance profile of the OLED display. We also proposed a novel strategy to measure the point spread function of the backlight module. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Applied Physics General)
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11 pages, 3340 KiB  
Article
Fast-Response Liquid Crystals for 6G Optical Communications
by Junyu Zou, Zhiyong Yang, Chongchang Mao and Shin-Tson Wu
Crystals 2021, 11(7), 797; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst11070797 - 8 Jul 2021
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 4989
Abstract
We report two high birefringence and low viscosity nematic mixtures for phase-only liquid-crystal-on-silicon spatial light modulators. The measured response time (on + off) of a test cell with 2π phase change at 1550 nm, 5 V operation voltage, and 40 °C is [...] Read more.
We report two high birefringence and low viscosity nematic mixtures for phase-only liquid-crystal-on-silicon spatial light modulators. The measured response time (on + off) of a test cell with 2π phase change at 1550 nm, 5 V operation voltage, and 40 °C is faster than 10 ms. To improve the photostability, a distributed Bragg reflector is designed to cutoff the harmful ultraviolet and blue wavelengths. These materials are promising candidates for future 6G optical communications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Liquid Crystal Optics for Applications)
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8 pages, 2986 KiB  
Article
Enlarging the Eyebox of Maxwellian Displays with a Customized Liquid Crystal Dammann Grating
by Ziqian He, Kun Yin, Kuan-Hsu Fan-Chiang and Shin-Tson Wu
Crystals 2021, 11(2), 195; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst11020195 - 17 Feb 2021
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4845
Abstract
The Maxwellian view offers a promising approach to overcome the vergence-accommodation conflict in near-eye displays, however, its pinhole-like imaging naturally limits the eyebox size. Here, a liquid crystal polymer-based Dammann grating with evenly distributed energy among different diffraction orders is developed to enlarge [...] Read more.
The Maxwellian view offers a promising approach to overcome the vergence-accommodation conflict in near-eye displays, however, its pinhole-like imaging naturally limits the eyebox size. Here, a liquid crystal polymer-based Dammann grating with evenly distributed energy among different diffraction orders is developed to enlarge the eyebox of Maxwellian view displays via pupil replication. In the experiment, a 3-by-3 Dammann grating is designed and fabricated, which exhibits good efficiency and high brightness uniformity. We further construct a proof-of-concept Maxwellian view display breadboard by inserting the Dammann grating into the optical system. The prototype successfully demonstrates the enlarged eyebox and full-color operation. Our work provides a promising route of eyebox expansion in Maxwellian view displays while maintaining full-color operation, simple system configuration, compactness, and lightweight. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Patterned-Liquid-Crystal for Novel Displays)
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8 pages, 2417 KiB  
Article
Enhancing the Optical Efficiency of Near-Eye Displays with Liquid Crystal Optics
by Tao Zhan, En-Lin Hsiang, Kun Li and Shin-Tson Wu
Crystals 2021, 11(2), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst11020107 - 26 Jan 2021
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4667
Abstract
We demonstrate a light efficient virtual reality (VR) near-eye display (NED) design based on a directional display panel and a diffractive deflection film (DDF). The DDF was essentially a high-efficiency Pancharatnam-Berry phase optical element made of liquid crystal polymer. The essence of this [...] Read more.
We demonstrate a light efficient virtual reality (VR) near-eye display (NED) design based on a directional display panel and a diffractive deflection film (DDF). The DDF was essentially a high-efficiency Pancharatnam-Berry phase optical element made of liquid crystal polymer. The essence of this design is directing most of the display light into the eyebox. The proposed method is applicable for both catadioptric and dioptric VR lenses. A proof-of-concept experiment was conducted with off-the-shelf optical parts, where the light efficiency was enhanced by more than 2 times. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Liquid-Crystal Polarization Gratings)
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10 pages, 1782 KiB  
Article
Fast-Response Liquid Crystal for Spatial Light Modulator and LiDAR Applications
by Junyu Zou, Qian Yang, En-Lin Hsiang, Haruki Ooishi, Zhuo Yang, Kifumi Yoshidaya and Shin-Tson Wu
Crystals 2021, 11(2), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst11020093 - 22 Jan 2021
Cited by 43 | Viewed by 5457
Abstract
We report a new nematic mixture for liquid-crystal-on-silicon spatial light modulator (SLM) and light detection and ranging (LiDAR) applications. The mixture exhibits a relatively high birefringence (Δn), moderate dielectric anisotropy (Δɛ), low viscosity, and reasonably good photostability. To achieve [...] Read more.
We report a new nematic mixture for liquid-crystal-on-silicon spatial light modulator (SLM) and light detection and ranging (LiDAR) applications. The mixture exhibits a relatively high birefringence (Δn), moderate dielectric anisotropy (Δɛ), low viscosity, and reasonably good photostability. To achieve 2π phase change at 5 V, the response time (on + off) is 2.5 ms at 40 °C with λ = 633 nm, and 5.9 ms with λ = 905 nm. After exposure by a blue laser (λ = 465 nm) with a total dosage up to 20 MJ/cm2, this mixture shows no sign of photodegradation. Widespread applications of this material for high brightness SLMs, LiDAR, near-eye displays, and head-up displays are foreseeable. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue A 10 Years Journey: Chemical, Physical, and Biological Properties and Applications of Crystals)
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