Search Results (154)

This research presents a straightforward and detailed method for calculating the cost of recycling solar panels and the associated economic benefits. The contribution of this research is to estimate the impact of the recycling process on the cost of energy and the payback period. The Full Recovery End-of-Life Photovoltaic (FRELP) method was utilized to assess the PV recycling process. Calculations were made for every 1000 kg of solar panels and converted to calculate the cost and revenue per square meter of panels. Calculations showed that the cost of recycling in Saudi Arabia reached 9.46 $/m² based on the geographical environment, fuel prices, and the various materials used in recycling processes, while the revenue was approximately 24.6 $/m² according to the current prices of materials resulting from the recycling process, especially the price of silver. The study results were applied to a 400 MW solar power plant to determine the feasibility of recycling the energy price and the payback period. The solar power plant was designed using variable-sized solar panels with capacities of 255, 330, and 580 watts. The recycling revenue for the plant with the smaller panels was the highest, being $2.6 M as an annual rate. Full article

As global photovoltaic (PV) installation capacity grows rapidly, the environmental pollution and resource waste from the large-scale end-of-life (EOL) wave have drawn increasing attention. Traditional disposal methods such as landfilling and incineration are no longer viable, making green recycling a logical path for the PV industry. This paper reviews recent progress in the disassembly and recycling of EOL crystalline silicon (c-Si) PV modules. It first describes the structural material composition of c-Si PV modules and summarizes global recycling policies and regulatory frameworks. It then analyzes the mechanisms and process parameters of major delamination technologies, including mechanical crushing, pyrolysis, thermal cutting, high-voltage pulse fragmentation, solvent-based approaches, and laser peeling. Methods for purifying silicon and recovering precious metals such as silver and copper are also covered. Finally, key challenges in the recycling field and future development trends are discussed, with the aim of supporting the advancement of c-Si PV recycling technologies and the sustainable development of related industrial chains. Full article

The booming clean energy industry has driven the expansion of photovoltaic (PV) and lithium-ion battery (LIB) sectors, causing the accumulation of new energy solid wastes such as wind turbine blades (WTB), PV modules and LIBs. Such solid wastes exhibit prominent characteristics such as multi-layer composition, a high degree of cross-linking, and multi-component coupling, presenting both high resource value and significant recycling challenges. This paper systematically reviews the material structural characteristics, EoL attributes, and current resource utilization status of these three new energy solid wastes. Existing recycling technologies are classified into three categories based on material structural evolution and value realization pathways: structure-retaining mechanical conversion, selective component extraction, and structure-reconstruction-based full-component upcycling. Furthermore, this study further compares various recycling routes in terms of recycling depth, value creation and development potential. The analysis indicates that, in the face of the impending large-scale retirement wave, relying solely on morphological reuse or partial component extraction is inadequate to meet the demands for efficient, high-value, and low-carbon recycling. Consequently, structure-reconstruction-based full-component upcycling will emerge as a crucial development direction for the resource utilization of new energy solid wastes. This paper provides a theoretical reference for related technological research and development, process optimization, and industrial system layout.: Full article

As China confronts an unprecedented surge in decommissioned photovoltaic (PV) modules, establishing a robust and comprehensive recycling mode has become an urgent task. However, the existing literature lacks a systematic investigation into multi-stakeholder responsibility models for end-of-life PV management. To bridge this critical gap, firstly, this study conceptualized three multi-stakeholder PV recycling modes and developed an 11-parameter cost–benefit analysis model to dynamically evaluate their economic disparities under varying scenarios. Secondly, the framework is applied to a regional case involving 55 prefecture-level cities in the Shandong, Jiangsu, Anhui, and Zhejiang provinces in China. The results showed that the collaborative recycling mode involving retailers and third parties achieved optimal economic performance, incurring a lower cost (64.30 million CNY) than the alternative modes (70.41 and 80.25 million CNY, respectively). Cost structural analysis revealed that the collection, storage, transportation, and processing stages were the critical bottlenecks for cost control across all three modes. Scenario simulations further indicated a non-linear dynamic: while expanding the recovery scale enhanced profitability, excessive network optimization (beyond 20%) or prolonged storage durations yielded diminishing returns. Comprehensively, the maximum net benefit was achieved by synergizing scale expansion with moderate network optimization and a strict 30-day storage limit. Ultimately, these findings demonstrate the economic feasibility of multi-entity responsibility modes, providing a universal methodological framework for other regions and countries to construct efficient, low-cost PV recycling systems. Full article

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as one of the most promising next-generation photovoltaic (PV) technologies due to their high power conversion efficiencies, low-temperature processing, and potential for low-cost manufacturing. Despite these advantages, several challenges remain that hinder their large-scale commercialization, particularly related to environmental sustainability, long-term stability, and end-of-life management (EoL). Life cycle assessment (LCA) has become an essential tool to evaluate the environmental impacts of emerging PV technologies and to identify critical hotspots across the supply chain. At the same time, concerns regarding material toxicity, particularly lead content, as well as the lack of established recycling pathways, highlight the importance of effective EoL management strategies. This review examines the current state of research on the life cycle environmental performance of perovskite solar modules (PSMs) and evaluates emerging approaches for sustainable EoL management. The study synthesizes the existing literature on manufacturing processes, environmental impact indicators, material recovery, recycling technologies, and circular economy strategies relevant to perovskite PVs. Particular attention is given to innovation-driven approaches that integrate sustainability considerations into technology development and commercialization pathways. By identifying key environmental hotspots, technological challenges, and research gaps, this review provides insights into how sustainable innovation and circular resource management can support the transition of PSMs from laboratory-scale research to economically viable and scalable commercial deployment. Full article

Sustainable and circular materials for renewable energy applications are essential for reducing the life-cycle burdens of photovoltaic (PV) power plants and improving the resource efficiency of low-carbon energy infrastructure. This study assesses the material-related environmental performance of an existing 2 MW mono-crystalline silicon (sc-Si) photovoltaic power plant in northern Poland and a prospective perovskite solar cell (PSC) module scenario modelled as an equivalent system with the same location, installed capacity, and annual electricity output. The functional unit was defined as 2000 MWh of electricity delivered annually. A cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment (LCA) was performed in SimaPro 9.4.0 using the ReCiPe 2016 method, complemented by an Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)-based greenhouse gas assessment. The inventory included photovoltaic modules, support structures, electrical installations, inverter stations, and transformers, with landfill and recycling-oriented material recovery considered as alternative post-consumer management strategies for materials after the end of the technical facility’s life. The results show that material-intensive upstream production stages and key balance-of-system components are major contributors to life-cycle impacts, while recycling can reduce selected burdens through material recovery and avoided production of primary materials. These recycling benefits were modelled using material-specific recovery rates and avoided-production credits assigned only to recovered fractions assumed to meet secondary material quality requirements. Under the adopted modelling assumptions, the PSC module scenario indicates potential for lower life-cycle impacts than the sc-Si baseline. For the prospective perovskite module scenario, this potential benefit is conditional on intact encapsulation during operation and controlled collection, separation, and recovery of lead-containing fractions at the end of life. The study demonstrates that material composition, component design, and circular end-of-life management are decisive factors for improving the environmental performance of PV power plants. Full article

The occupational health implications of solar photovoltaic (PV) recycling remain critically under-investigated. This study assessed occupational exposure across the PV recycling value chain in Taiwan, evaluating primary mechanical dismantling and downstream reuse sectors (glass milling and controlled low-strength material [CLSM] batching). Area and personal samples were analyzed for total dust, respirable dust, and trace heavy metals. Results indicated that primary mechanical crushing yielded relatively low ambient dust and negligible toxic heavy metal (e.g., Pb, Cd) aerosols, attributed to the macroscopic ductility of metallic ribbons and EVA shock-absorbing properties. Conversely, a critical “hazard transfer” phenomenon was empirically identified downstream, where intensive secondary grinding and aggregate blending in the downstream reuse sector (glass milling and CLSM batching) systematically shifted the aerodynamic particle size distribution, causing the respirable dust fraction to surge to 38.9–72.6%. The pursuit of zero-waste material circularity inadvertently amplifies highly dispersive, respirable dust hazards in downstream sectors, necessitating targeted occupational exposure controls. Full article

The plastics industry sector is a massive contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. In this context, it is important to find alternatives to valorise plastic polymer waste, since 63.0% of the plastics produced between 1950 and 2015 were incinerated or disposed of in landfills. This study aims to evaluate the environmental and economic performance of a polymeric control panel for a domestic boiler. The environmental assessment was conducted using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology from a cradle-to-grave perspective, allowing the identification of the hotspots of the panel under analysis in two scenarios: virgin panel (VP) and recycled panel (RP). The economic evaluation was performed through a techno-economic analysis (TEA) considering both operating expenditures (OpEx) and annualised capital expenditures (CapEx) allocated to the functional unit. The VP scenario used 100.0% virgin polymer, while the RP scenario used 70.0% virgin polymer and 30.0% internal recycled polymer. The analysis shows a clear synergy: substituting a portion of virgin polymer with recycled PC/ABS reduces both environmental impacts and production costs, while also increasing the sustainability. The results support internal recycling as a practical circularity strategy that can improve environmental performance. The RP scenario is both the environmentally preferable and the economically better option. Additionally, the consistency of results across both LCA and TEA indicates that the identified hotspots represent leverage points for future interventions to amplify benefits to further improve sustainability. For instance, further decarbonization of the Portuguese electricity grid or increased reliance on on-site PV electricity would strengthen the environmental profile of both scenarios. At the same time, continued optimisation of recycling processes could enhance cost savings. Full article

The exponential increase in photovoltaic panel (PV) waste highlights the urgent need to develop efficient and sustainable recycling processes. It is estimated that by 2030, 8 million tons of PV modules will reach their end-of-life stage, posing a significant environmental challenge and requiring the development of green technologies for resource recovery. This study assessed the performance of imidazolium-based ionic liquids (ILs) as “designer solvents” for the selective leaching of copper and silver from disused PV panels. Specifically, four quaternary imidazolium salts were evaluated: [Bmim]HSO₄, [Emim]HSO₄, [Bmim]Cl, and [Emim]Cl. Leaching tests were conducted on silicon wafers containing 0.28% Ag and 0.19% Cu under varying temperatures (25, 50, and 80 °C), IL concentrations (20% and 60% v/v), and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) dosages (0% and 3% v/v) as an oxidizing agent. The results identified [Bmim]HSO₄ as the most effective leaching agent. The system achieved a maximum copper extraction of 96.70% at 60% v/v concentration and 80 °C. For silver, the highest extraction of 45.13% was obtained using [Bmim]HSO₄ at 20% v/v and 80 °C. The addition of H₂O₂ was crucial, demonstrating a clear synergistic effect with the imidazolium-based ILs by promoting oxidative dissolution. These findings confirm that imidazolium-based ionic liquids represent a promising and environmentally friendly alternative for the recovery of high-value metals in the circular economy of photovoltaic recycling. Full article

The rapid expansion of solar photovoltaic (PV) deployment has led to increasing concerns regarding end-of-life module management and the sustainability of material supply chains, where waste volumes are projected to reach 3.3–5.6 million tons by 2045. This study evaluates the environmental and economic impact of advanced photovoltaic recycling in Germany, focusing on high-value material recovery from crystalline silicon modules. A Full Recovery of End-of-Life Photovoltaics (FRELP) pathway is developed, integrating light-pulse delamination and molten salt etching, and a comparative life cycle assessment and economic assessment framework is applied. The results indicate that advanced recycling achieves high recovery rates for silicon, silver, aluminum, copper and low-iron glass, yielding around €1174.88 per ton of panels recycled. Economic analysis shows that manufacturing PV modules from recycled materials reduces costs by approximately 60–77% compared to virgin material production, mainly due to avoided energy-intensive upstream processes. From an environmental perspective, the recycling-based pathway yields net benefits across impact categories, as avoided impacts from primary material extraction outweigh additional burdens associated with recycling. Overall, PV recycling in Europe is shown to be environmentally and economically favorable; however, technological maturity and policy constraints remain key barriers to large-scale implementation and a holistic overall recycling process, indicating the need for targeted policy support. Full article

The rapid growth of photovoltaic panels installations has led to a dramatic increase in the end-of-life (EoL) panels, creating an urgent need for efficient recycling strategies. In the present study, a pretreatment system consisting of hydrochloric acid was developed to remove impurity metals such as aluminum and iron from EoL PV panel powder prior to the precious metals leaching step. Response surface methodology (RSM) based on a central composite design (CCD) was employed to optimize the effects of main operational parameters, i.e., HCl concentration, leaching time, and solid-to-liquid (S/L) ratio on the dissolution of Al, Fe, Pb, Sn, and Cu. Thermodynamic analysis with the help of HSC Chemistry^® 10 software, confirmed the feasibility of dissolution of the Al, Fe, Pb, Sn, and Cu in chloride media. Experimental results demonstrated that the dissolution rate of Al and Fe under optimal conditions were 86.05 and 91.77 percent, respectively. In all of the tests, copper dissolution remained negligible (<4%), and no silver was detected which confirms the selectivity of the pretreatment. The optimized conditions (1.5 M HCl, 198 min, 20% S/L) enabled effective impurity removal while preserving silver in the solid residue. This study highlights the importance of selective pretreatment in enhancing downstream silver recovery and provides a practical approach for the hydrometallurgical recycling of end-of-life PV waste. Full article

As declared in the European Green Deal, the decarbonization of the EU energy system is essential for achieving Europe’s climate neutrality targets, demanding a substantial expansion of renewable energy sources and the rapid phase-out of coal and gas. It is therefore essential that newly installed PV products within the EU are designed to avoid creating additional environmental burdens due to environmental impacts during production and at the end of life (EOL) of photovoltaic (PV) modules. This study presents a life cycle assessment (LCA) of sustainable/green PV module designs in terms of recyclability using advanced high-quality recycling technologies. It compares two product systems both based on mono c-Si PV technology and the glass–glass (G–G) module design: 1. Passivated Emitter and Rear Contact (PERC) and 2. Tunnel Oxide Passivated Contact (TOPCon) cell technologies, which are assessed under production scenarios in China and Germany, and two recycling scenarios (hypothetical high-recovery recycling and partial recycling) using inventory data from eco-invent and literature sources. The results across most impact categories show that the PERC and TOPCon module designs produced in Germany with high-recovery recycling as the end-of-life strategy exhibit lower impacts than those produced in China with partial recycling as the end-of-life strategy under the adopted assumptions such as electricity mix and end-of-life modelling choices for module-only impacts (excluding BOS components). The climate change results show that TOPCon cell design under high-recovery recycling yields 10.4% lower emissions than the PERC cell design under partial recycling in Germany and 9.7% lower in China. However, both module designs emit 26.6% and 27.2% less GHG emissions when produced in Germany compared to production in China, respectively, which is line with earlier studies. With the exception of human toxicity, both PERC and TOPCon cell technologies perform better in this study than previously reported in reviewed LCA studies, reflecting the use of more recent state-of-the-art industry data concerning manufacturing requirements. The sensitivity analysis carried out on the design changes and electricity grid mix available shows that any improvements in the design process and increases in renewable energy penetration into the grid corresponds to a proportional reduction in environmental impacts across all impact categories. Full article

Ground-mounted photovoltaic (PV) plants generate discrete end-of-life waste streams during repowering/revamping, yet damaged modules do not always leave the site. We document two field-verified case studies from Czechia, in which damaged PV modules remained stored outdoors on agricultural land after repowering/revamping. The two sites are treated as illustrative, field-verified cases rather than as a statistically representative sample of PV plants in Czechia or Europe. The sites were first identified during field visits in summer 2025, and a retrospective review of public CUZK orthophoto time series was then used to reconstruct when the stockpiles first became visible and whether they were still present in the latest available imagery. The stored module piles first became visible in 2022 and 2021 at the two sites, and were still present in summer 2025, corresponding to a minimum confirmed persistence of about 3 and 4 years, respectively. Orthophoto-based GIS supported by field photographs was used to quantify the land parcel area (19,560 and 22,100 m²), PV plan-view area (4960 and 5080 m²), storage footprint (109 and 100 m²), approximate stored module count (~1800 and ~2000), and stored mass (39.6 and 36.0 t). Using site-specific module footprints and a representative 30-module stack, the local stack-based pressures were calculated to be 3.92 and 3.26 kPa, respectively. Soil chemistry, leachate, and groundwater were not measured; therefore, the environmental implications should be interpreted as precautionary risk and as a need for monitoring, not as measured contamination at the two sites. The study shows that repowering/revamping can create a multi-year gap between module replacement and actual site clearance, during which recycling and final disposal are effectively delayed. Full article

To mitigate the effects of climate change, the world must significantly reduce its reliance on fossil fuels to lower greenhouse gas emissions. The nuclear power and renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, water, waste, and geothermal energy, emit minimal to no greenhouse gases or pollutants during operation. These sources are considered crucial for combating climate change and supporting sustainable development. However, the production of electricity, like most industries, generates waste. Comparisons show clear differences: fossil fuel plants produce the largest total waste mass (primarily combustion ash, flue gas desulfurization residues, and wastewater sludge), while nuclear facilities generate a minimal volume but high-activity spent fuel and long-lived radioactive materials. Solar PV systems generate significant end-of-life electronic waste and glass encapsulant, and wind turbines yield moderate composite blade residues. Hydropower sediment management and geothermal scaling contribute unique waste streams of local concern. Regardless of the energy source, responsible waste management is critical to minimize environmental impacts. This article explores the sustainability of low-carbon energy sources, specifically focusing on waste management with the aim of highlighting the need of implementing targeted strategies such as advanced recycling and material substitution in order to minimize environmental impacts and enhance the circularity of low-carbon energy systems. Full article

Recycling end-of-life (EoL) photovoltaic (PV) modules is essential for resource recovery and pollution mitigation, yet weak incentives and non-standardized treatment continue to hinder the development of formal recycling systems. This paper develops a tripartite evolutionary game model involving the government, PV power generators, and third-party recyclers under a reward–penalty policy mechanism. Replicator dynamic equations, Jacobian stability analysis, and MATLAB R2023b (MathWorks, Natick, MA, USA) simulations are used to examine strategic interactions and evolutionary paths. The results show that: (1) under the baseline parameter setting, the system converges to a unique evolutionary stable strategy, (0, 1, 1), namely no government regulation, generator recycling, and recycler green technology innovation; (2) variations in initial strategy probabilities affect convergence speed but do not change the final equilibrium; (3) under the same total reward expenditure, increasing rewards to generators drives the system toward the desirable equilibrium faster than allocating the same amount mainly to recyclers; and (4) penalty policies also promote compliance, but their marginal effect is weaker than that of reward-based incentives. These findings suggest that appropriately designed incentives can accelerate generator recycling and recycler green innovation, while the government’s role may gradually shift from direct intervention to supervision and coordination. Full article