Search Results (422)

Tillage practices critically influence soil’s physical properties, which are fundamental to sustainable agriculture in temperate climates. This review evaluates how conventional tillage (CvT; e.g., moldboard and chisel plowing), reduced tillage (RT), and conservation tillage (CT), particularly no-tillage (NT), affect six key indicators: bulk density (BD), saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks), wet aggregate stability (WAS), penetration resistance (PR), available water capacity (AWC), and soil organic carbon (SOC). Special emphasis is placed on differentiating topsoil and subsoil responses to inform climate-resilient land management. A total of 70 peer-reviewed studies published between 1991 and 2025 were analyzed. Data were extracted for BD, Ks, WAS, PR, AWC, and SOC across tillage systems. Depths were standardized into topsoil (0–10 cm) and composite (>10 cm) categories. Descriptive statistics were used to synthesize cross-study trends. NT showed lower mean BD in the topsoil (1.32 ± 0.08 Mg/m³) compared with moldboard plow (1.33 ± 0.09) and chisel tillage (1.39 ± 0.12); however, the effects of tillage on BD were not statistically significant, while BD was higher at composite depths under NT (1.56 ± 0.09 Mg/m³), indicating subsoil compaction. Ks improved under NT, reaching 4.2 mm/h with residue retention. WAS rose by 33.4%, and SOC increased by 25% under CT systems. PR tended to be elevated in deeper layers under NT. Overall, CT, particularly NT, improves surface soil’s physical health and SOC accumulation in temperate agroecosystems; however, persistent subsoil compaction highlights the need for depth-targeted management strategies, such as controlled traffic, periodic subsoil alleviation, or deep-rooted cover crops, to sustain long-term soil functionality and climate-resilient production systems. Full article

Background/Objectives: Functional impairment of the complex motility system in the upper gastrointestinal tract is high in patients suffering from obesity and even higher after metabolic bariatric surgery (MBS). Sleeve gastrectomy (SG) and gastric bypass (GB) represent the most common MBS procedures worldwide. Despite procedural standardization, no diagnostic method is able to depict the functional consequences resulting from intraoperative anatomical changes during MBS. This pilot study was conducted to reveal immediate intraoperative functional effects of MBS on the anti-reflux barrier in SG and GB. Methods: A prospective analysis was performed on consecutive patients with informed consent for MBS. A standard protocol for each procedure was established prior to study onset to analyze functional parameters at the lower esophageal sphincter (LES). Measurements were conducted intraoperatively during minimally invasive SG and GB. Distensibility index (DI), intra-balloon pressure, diameter (Dmin), and minimal cross-sectional area (CSA) at the LES served as points of interest for analyzation. Results: Intraoperative evaluation was performed successfully in 40 patients and no directly related adverse events were reported. DI and Dmin intraoperatively significantly increased immediately in SG (2.1 mm²/mmHg (±0.5) vs. 2.9 mm²/mmHg (±1.3), 95% CI: −1.6 to −0.14, p = 0.023 and 12.0 mm (±1.2) vs. 13.9 mmH (±2.8), 95% CI: −3.6 to −0.2, p = 0.028, respectively) whereas GB did not affect functional measurements. Conclusions: Sleeve gastrectomy immediately and significantly influences the LES and increases the opening area whereas gastric bypass surgery appears not to influence LES distensibility or opening diameters. Intraoperative standardized EndoFLIP^TM measurements are feasible and safe and add additional real-time information during MBS. Full article

Background: Serum C–C motif chemokine ligand 18 (seCCL18) in systemic sclerosis (SSc) has been primarily associated with progressive interstitial lung disease (SSc-ILD) and mortality. However, its relationship with non-pulmonary organ involvement, disease activity, and long-term outcome has not been comprehensively evaluated. We therefore examined the clinical relevance of seCCL18 in a single-center SSc cohort. Methods: A total of 151 patients with SSc (83 diffuse cutaneous (dcSSc), 68 limited cutaneous SSc (lcSSc); median (IQR) disease duration: 9 (4;16) years) and 47 age- and sex-matched healthy controls (HCs) were enrolled. Serum CCL18 concentrations were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Elevated seCCL18 was defined as >130 ng/mL (mean + 2 SD of the healthy control group). Organ involvement and disease activity (EUSTAR Activity Index, EUSTAR-AI) were assessed at baseline, while survival was analysed longitudinally. Results: Patients with SSc had significantly higher seCCL18 levels than HCs (mean ± SD: 99.9 ± 43.2 vs. 75.0 ± 27.5 ng/mL, p < 0.01). Elevated seCCL18 was associated with SSc-ILD (81.1% vs. 60.5%, p = 0.022), reduced forced vital capacity (FVC < 70%: 16.2% vs. 3.5%, p = 0.006), and reduced diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (DLCO < 70%: 80.6% vs. 54.4%, p = 0.005). Higher seCCL18 levels were observed in patients with myocardial disease (104.8 ± 41.8 vs. 83.8 ± 44.2 ng/mL, p = 0.008), left ventricular diastolic dysfunction (107.1 ± 40.5 vs. 84.5 ± 45.0 ng/mL, p < 0.001), and oesophageal involvement (110.7 ± 38.3 vs. 93.3 ± 43.1 ng/mL, p = 0.009). SeCCL18 levels above the cut-off were more frequently associated with tendon friction rubs (51.4% vs. 27.4%, p = 0.007), active disease (EUSTAR-AI ≥ 2.5: 73% vs. 44%, p = 0.002), and elevated inflammatory markers (CRP > 5 mg/L: 51.4% vs. 19.3%, p < 0.001; ESR > 28 mm/h: 37.8% vs. 18.4%, p = 0.015). During a median follow-up of 87 months, 22 patients (15%) died. Elevated baseline seCCL18 predicted poorer survival in univariate analysis (log-rank p = 0.013) and remained an independent predictor of mortality in multivariable Cox regression (HR 1.789; 95% CI 1.133–2.824; p = 0.013), together with declining DLCO and reduced six-minute walk test performance. Conclusions: Elevated seCCL18 may identify patients with systemic sclerosis who exhibit a more severe multisystem phenotype, including cardiopulmonary, gastrointestinal, and musculoskeletal involvement, increased inflammatory activity, and reduced long-term survival. These findings suggest that seCCL18 may have some clinical utility as a prognostic biomarker reflecting widespread disease involvement beyond the lungs, even in patients with long-standing disease; however, the lack of an established cut-off value requires further validation in prospective, multicentre studies. Full article

Background/Objectives: Combat trauma involving large joints is associated with a high risk of thromboinflammatory complications. Early identification of laboratory markers for hypercoagulability is essential to optimise perioperative management. This study aimed to evaluate the dynamics of inflammation and haemostasis indicators in patients with combat-related joint trauma and to identify the most informative markers for preoperative risk assessment. Methods: A total of 29 patients with combat injuries to the hip, knee, elbow, or ankle joints were examined. Blood samples were taken 1–3 days prior to surgery and again on the first postoperative day. Parameters of coagulation (e.g., PT, INR, fibrinogen, D-dimer, soluble fibrin complexes, antithrombin III), fibrinolysis, and inflammation (e.g., CRP, haptoglobin, sialic acid, ESR, LSI, LII) were analysed and compared to those of 30 healthy controls. Statistical analysis included Student’s t-test and Pearson’s correlation. Results: At baseline, patients demonstrated significant increases in inflammatory markers (CRP 64.2 ± 7.3 mg/L, ↑738.9%; haptoglobin 3.25 ± 0.4 g/L, ↑164.3%; ESR 46.8 ± 5.2 mm/h, ↑313.8%) and procoagulant activity (D-dimer 1.42 ± 0.18 µg/mL, ↑136.6%; fibrinogen 6.12 ± 0.51 g/L, ↑102.4%; soluble fibrin complexes 38.7 ± 4.9 mg/L, ↑597.3%), together with a reduction in antithrombin III activity (63.5 ± 6.2%, ↓39.5%) and prolonged fibrinolysis time (increase by 197%). Postoperatively, these abnormalities intensified, indicating a sustained thromboinflammatory response. Strong correlations were found between inflammatory and haemostatic markers. Conclusions: Combat trauma of large joints is associated with preoperative thromboinflammatory dysregulation, which is exacerbated by surgery. Monitoring specific biochemical and haematological markers—such as CRP, fibrinogen, D-dimer, and soluble fibrin complexes—may support preoperative risk assessment and postoperative monitoring strategies for hypercoagulable states in this high-risk group. These findings lay the groundwork for future prospective studies aimed at developing stratified therapeutic protocols and predictive models for thromboinflammatory complications in orthopaedic trauma care. Full article

Background and Clinical Significance: Isolated mediastinal lymphadenopathy is an exceptionally rare and diagnostically challenging initial manifestation of microscopic polyangiitis (MPA), often mimicking malignancy or infection. This case highlights the pivotal role of an innovative minimally invasive technique in achieving a definitive diagnosis. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first reported case of MPA diagnosed via EBUS-TMC. Case Presentation: A 55-year-old male livestock farmer from a rural area with a history of recurrent pneumonia presented with four weeks of persistent fever, significant weight loss (7 kg), myalgia, and asthenia. Physical examination revealed fever and cachexia. Notable findings included leukocytosis (17,000/μL), normocytic anemia, thrombocytosis (672,000/μL), highly elevated inflammatory markers (CRP 145 mg/L, ESR 120 mm/h), and strongly positive MPO-ANCA (>134 U/mL). Serological testing was significant for IgG antibodies against Coxiella burnetii (Phase I 1:64, Phase II 1:256). PET-CT imaging demonstrated hypermetabolic bilateral hilar and mediastinal lymphadenopathy. Diagnostic challenges included overlapping serological findings suggestive of past Coxiella burnetii exposure. Endobronchial ultrasound–guided transbronchial mediastinal cryobiopsy (EBUS-TMC) of a subcarinal lymph node was performed, providing a high-quality sample that revealed neutrophilic small-vessel vasculitis with fibrinoid necrosis, definitive for MPA. Immunosuppressive therapy with high-dose corticosteroids and rituximab (1000 mg on days 1 and 15) was initiated, leading to the complete resolution of all constitutional symptoms. Conclusions: This case illustrates that EBUS-TMC is a safe and highly effective diagnostic tool for obtaining critical histological evidence in systemic vasculitides with atypical presentations. This technique should be considered in the diagnostic algorithm for unexplained mediastinal lymphadenopathy to avoid more invasive surgical procedures. Full article

Inflammatory diseases are common in companion dogs. Although white blood cell (WBC) count and C-reactive protein (CRP) are routinely used to assess systemic inflammation, their individual prognostic value remains limited. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), reflecting red blood cell aggregation driven by plasma proteins, has long been applied in human medicine as both an inflammatory and prognostic marker. This study evaluated the prognostic utility of ESR in dogs, including clinically healthy and diseased populations. Associations between ESR, other inflammatory markers, and age were examined, and its role as an independent predictor of mortality and optimal clinical cut-off were determined. A subgroup of dogs meeting the systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) criteria were also analyzed to assess the latter’s usefulness in acute settings. A total of 350 dogs were enrolled: 241 diseased and 109 healthy. ESR was measured using an automated analyzer. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis, expressed as the area under the curve (AUC), evaluated diagnostic accuracy, followed by Kaplan–Meier survival and Cox proportional hazard analyses. ESR values were significantly higher in the disease group than in the healthy group (p < 0.0001). ESR showed fair to good prognostic accuracy for mortality in both the overall cohort (AUC = 0.776 [95% CI: 0.709–0.842]) and the SIRS subgroup (AUC = 0.846 [95% CI: 0.747–0.946]). An ESR cut-off of 18 mm/h was associated with mortality in SIRS dogs with 87.5% specificity. In the multivariate analysis, ESR showed an independent association with mortality (hazard ratio 1.013 [95% CI: 1.004–1.022], p = 0.004). These findings support ESR as a practical and independent prognostic marker for risk stratification in dogs with systemic inflammation. Full article

The response mechanisms of reinforced soil retaining wall structures under rainfall infiltration are not fully understood, leading to insufficient design guidelines. This study investigates a modular reinforced soil retaining wall model employing concrete blocks as the facing panel, standard sand as backfill, and a biaxial geogrid as reinforcement. Three sets of tests with varying rainfall intensities (150 mm/h, 300 mm/h, and 450 mm/h) were conducted to analyse and compare the response patterns of rainwater infiltration, earth pressure distribution, reinforcement strain, and displacement characteristics. The results indicate that with increasing rainfall intensity, the depth of infiltration influence extends across the entire wall section, with significant water accumulation at the base under heavy rainstorm conditions. The distribution pattern of static earth pressure is generally consistent across tests; however, a notable abrupt change reaching 8.59 kPa was observed at mid-height under rainstorm conditions. The strain increment distribution in the reinforcement is non-uniform, with increments under heavy rain and heavy rainstorm conditions being less than those under rainstorm conditions. The displacement of the wall panel is greatest in the middle and upper sections, with the smallest displacement occurring under rainstorm conditions. The displacement pattern shows a negative correlation with both the static earth pressure and the reinforcement strain patterns. These findings provide theoretical support for drainage design and stability control of reinforced soil retaining walls in regions experiencing heavy rainfall. Full article

Microtopography regulates soil erosion by shaping surface heterogeneity, but the mechanism of loess slope soil loss remains insufficiently quantified. This study combined laboratory rainfall simulations and machine learning to investigate how tillage-induced microtopography modulates soil loss through surface heterogeneity and hydrodynamic processes. Simulations used loess soil (silty loam) with a 5° slope, 60 mm/h rainfall intensity, and 5–30 min rainfall durations (RD). Results indicated that the mean weight diameter (MWD) and aggregate stability index (ASI) of structural, transition, and depositional crusts under micro-terrain decreased by 36~65% and 41~60%, respectively, while the fractal dimension (D) increased by 10~19%. Negative relationships were observed between ASI/MWD and D (R² = 0.83~0.98). Horizontal cultivation (T_HC, surface roughness [SR] = 1.76, average depression storage [ADS] = 2.34 × 10⁻² m³) delayed runoff connectivity and reduced cumulative soil loss (LS) by 42–58% compared to hoeing cultivation (T_HE, SR = 1.47, ADS = 3.23 × 10⁻⁴ m³). Abrupt hydrodynamic transitions occurred at 10 min RD (T_HE) and 15 min RD (artificial digging [T_AD]), driven by trench connectivity and depression overflow. LS exhibited a significant positive correlation with D and RD and was inversely correlated with ASI, MWD, and SR. A three-hidden-layer BPNN exhibited high predictive accuracy for LS (mean square error = 0.07), verifying applicability in complex scenarios with significant microtopographic heterogeneity and multi-factor coupling. This study demonstrated that surface roughness and depression storage were the dominant microtopographic controls on loess slope soil loss. BPNN provided a reliable tool for soil loss prediction in heterogeneous microtopographic systems. The findings provide critical insights into optimizing tillage-based soil conservation strategies for sloping loess farmlands. Full article

This study investigates the influence of land use and land cover (LULC) on the distribution of extreme rainfall in the tropical coastal city of Natal, Brazil. Hourly precipitation data from eight automatic rain gauges (2014–2023) were quality-controlled, with only days containing 24 h continuous records retained. Rainfall events were classified into light (<5 mm), normal (5–10 mm), intense (40–50 mm), and extreme (>50 mm) categories, and for each category daily accumulation, duration, intensity, and maximum hourly peaks were calculated. Seasonal and spatial differences across administrative zones were assessed using multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). The LULC changes were evaluated from the MapBiomas Collection 9 dataset. Results show that between 1985 and 2020, the proportion of urbanized (non-vegetated) surfaces increased from 27.7% (42.3 km²) to 64.3% (99.7 km²), mainly in the North and West zones, replacing agricultural and vegetated areas. The East and North zones, the most urbanized areas, recorded higher daily averages of extreme rainfall in the dry season (85–88 mm) than in the wet season (78–82 mm), with maximum peaks up to 26 mm/h and durations exceeding 17 h. These findings demonstrate that rapid urban expansion intensifies rainfall extremes, underscoring the importance of incorporating LULC monitoring (e.g., MapBiomas) and spatial planning into climate adaptation strategies for medium-sized cities. Full article

Livestock manure is currently one of the major sources of non-point source pollution. Reasonably determining the impact of rainfall runoff on free-range livestock areas and identifying the rainfall interception time for different pollutants are of great significance for managing watershed water environments. Using the Yongchuan District of Chongqing as a case study, the runoff water pollution scouring results (M(V) curve) of typical areas, including free-range livestock and poultry breeding areas and park impermeable road, were tested and analyzed by using an artificial rainfall simulation device under 45 and 90 mm/h, aiming to provide a reference for the efficient interception of main pollutants in different livestock and poultry breeding areas. The results of the M(V) curve analysis revealed the following: (1) Among the 15 pollutants in the livestock and poultry breeding area of the study area, the first flushing effect of total dissolved phosphorus and nitrite nitrogen was the most obvious. After 24 min of rainfall, the cumulative load of total dissolved phosphorus in this area accounted for 85.71% of the total load, while the cumulative load of nitrite nitrogen accounted for 83.41% of the total load at this time. (2) The first flush effect of pollutants at 45 mm/h is higher than that at 90 mm/h. At 45 mm/h, the first flush effect of pollutants is in the order of total dissolved phosphorus > nitrite nitrogen > total nitrogen > ammonia nitrogen > permanganate index, while at 90 mm/h, it is nitrite nitrogen > permanganate index > ammonia nitrogen > total dissolved phosphorus > total nitrogen. This phenomenon can be attributed to the distinct existence forms of pollutants in road runoff (dissolved and particulate phases), combined with the smaller raindrop diameter and steeper wash-off slope under 45 mm/h. (3) Distinct patterns in total pollution load and first flush effects were observed across different livestock and poultry breeding areas. The highest total pollutant load was recorded in the hen farm, whereas the most intensive first flush occurred in large-scale pig and goose farms. Furthermore, 52.68 to 82.63% of pollutants in Yongchuan District’s livestock and poultry breeding areas can be effectively intercepted by setting the initial rainfall interception time to within 18~24 min after rainfall runoff, as indicated by comparative analysis with relevant water quality standards. Research demonstrates significant first flush effects in livestock and poultry breeding areas of Yongchuan District, Chongqing. It is recommended to implement rainfall interception measures within 18~24 min after rainfall runoff. These findings provide valuable references for effective pollution control of rainfall runoff from impervious surfaces. Full article

The three-temperatures (3T) method is a robust approach to estimating evapotranspiration (ET), requiring relatively few measurable, physical parameters and an imitation surface, making it potentially suited for estimating ET from sustainable drainage systems (SuDS) and green infrastructure (GI) in urban environments. However, limited 3T-ET data from SuDS and/or GI makes it difficult to assess the conditions that affect its accuracy. The purpose of this study was to determine whether reasonable ET estimates could be achieved using the 3T method with a plastic imitation surface for a small, homogenous vegetated surface. The 3T-ET estimates were produced at an hourly timestep and compared to reference ET ($E{T}_o$) derived using the Penman–Monteith equation. The 3T-ET estimates were consistently higher than $E{T}_o$ (mean absolute error of 0.05 to 0.15 mm·h⁻¹), which may indicate systematic overestimation of ET or that the actual ET was greater than $E{T}_o$. Unrealistic 3T-ET estimates are produced when the air temperature and the imitation surface temperature converge, limiting the method’s application to between mid-morning and late afternoon. Further work to validate and refine the 3T method is required before it can be recommended for deployment in the field for spot-sampling ET rates from urban SuDS/GI. Full article

Recent urbanization and climate change have altered the hydrologic characteristics of road surfaces, intensifying urban flooding and associated damage. This study focuses on permeable block pavements, a key LID technology for sustainable urban development, particularly with respect to their application for sidewalks. To quantitatively evaluate the permeability performance of the pavement system and clarify the infiltration mechanisms associated with different combinations of upper and lower aggregates, an integrated permeability testing apparatus was developed. Based on small-scale testing, the coefficient of permeability was quantitatively evaluated according to the gradation characteristics of the base aggregates. The results indicated that as the fine content increased and the coefficient of uniformity (Cu) decreased, the permeability coefficient also decreased. Furthermore, when blocks were added above the base layer, the permeability coefficient showed a decreasing trend, suggesting that even if the upper layers have higher intrinsic permeability, the hydraulic conductivity of the lower layers predominantly governs the overall permeability of the system. Using large-scale rainfall simulation, the permeability was evaluated under a rainfall intensity of 88.2 mm/h. The base-only configuration exhibited the highest storage capacity (approximately 36%), while adding the bedding layer and block pavement reduced the initial outflow time by up to 33 s. Full article

Aeolian sand slopes in the Fugu area of Yulin, Shaanxi Province, China, are prone to rainfall-induced erosion because of the loose structure and low water-holding capacity of the sand, which constrains long-term, sustainable ecological restoration. To address this, aeolian sand was amended with xanthan gum (XG) and a superabsorbent polymer (SAP) and combined with a honeycomb confinement system; evaporation, 70 mm·h⁻¹ rainfall–erosion, and direct shear tests were carried out. SAP increased the 24 h water content of untreated sand from 1.8% to about 20–22%, while excessive SAP led to surface cracking. XG strengthened interparticle bonding and reduced 60 min cumulative erosion from about 53 kg to <0.5 kg (reduction > 99%) and improved shear strength. Within the practically recommended range (XG 0.5–1.0%, SAP ≤ 0.25%), XG and SAP showed water-supply-improving and surface-strengthening effects that effectively covered the early-stage vegetation protection gap, i.e., the period before vegetation becomes dense enough to resist raindrop impact and runoff erosion. The results provide laboratory support for sustainable, nature-based stabilization of aeolian sand slopes in semi-arid engineering areas. Full article

Rain-on-snow (ROS) events profoundly influence mixed rain–snow flooding and the water resource cycle. However, current research regarding ROS events remains predominantly reliant on existing datasets, lacking detailed controlled experiments under variable conditions. This study employed control variables and an orthogonal experimental design to conduct laboratory-controlled experiments simulating ROS events with different temperatures, rainfall intensities, and rainfall durations. Observations and analyses were performed on the snowmelt volumes during and after events. The results indicate that ROS events significantly accelerate snowmelt rates and increase total snowmelt volume. Under low-intensity ROS, snowmelt volume exhibits greater sensitivity to temperature changes. A temperature threshold exists between 2 °C and 6 °C; beyond this threshold, the melting rate accelerates and ablation volume increases. Under high-intensity ROS, rainwater becomes the dominant factor driving snowpack ablation. When rainfall intensity exceeds 60 mm·h⁻¹, it triggers a sharp increase in snowmelt volume. Concurrently, following an ROS event, snowpacks subjected to low-intensity rainfall exhibit a stronger rainwater retention capacity, an effect that becomes more pronounced at lower temperatures. Additionally, snowmelt volume increases with prolonged rainfall duration, with the increment in snowmelt volume attributable to extended rainfall time being greater under weaker rainfall intensities. These findings provide a scientific reference for better understanding ROS-related disasters mechanisms. Full article

As space activities expand rapidly, especially the in-orbit population, concerns about their environmental consequences are growing. For in-space propulsion, this is particularly true under the increasing regulatory pressure on hydrazine-based legacy propellants. In response to that, this study presents a cradle-to-gate Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of the four main current options for in-space liquid bipropellant systems—MON-3/MMH, 98%-HTP/Ethanol, 98%-HTP/RP-1 and N₂O/Ethane—each evaluated as a complete system including propellant-combination loading and sized propulsion-architecture manufacturing. The comparison is performed against a representative 2 kN Orbital Transfer Vehicle (OTV) mission scenario delivering a total $\Delta$v of 2300 m/s. Each solution’s environmental performance is quantified across 15 midpoint indicators, using ESA’s space-specific LCA database and combined through an Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) single-score for easier comparison. Results show that while HTP/Ethanol achieves the lowest impact at the propellant-loading level, the N₂O/Ethane system obtains the lowest overall footprint once the full propulsion system architecture, sized for the mission, is included, with a total environmental impact 63% lower than the legacy MON-3/MMH system. A key outcome of this study is that manufacturing propulsion components dominates the life-cycle footprint, bringing up to 95% of the total impact for HTP-based systems and approximately 64% for MON-3/MMH and self-pressurizing architectures, mainly due to the energy-intensive production of titanium and aluminum tanks. In light of these results, this paper proposes a mission-driven definition of “greener” propulsion, requiring at least a 50% reduction in the combined total and human-toxicity impacts, together with a lower Global Warming Potential (GWP) than legacy hydrazine-based systems, given that GWP was identified as the most critical environmental concern to address. However, the study also shows that considering only GWP would have led to an incorrect conclusion, and therefore advises against relying on single-impact environmental assessments. Additional replacement criteria for in-space propellants include cost-efficiency, reliability and global propulsive performance. This work implements a system-level environmental performance assessment and classification framework for in-space liquid propulsion options, providing a structured approach for selecting and qualifying more sustainable alternative candidates for future mission scenarios. Full article