Search Results (31)

Translation and post-editing both integrate reading into bilingual text production, yet it remains unclear which computational predictors from multilingual pre-trained models best account for translators’ reading patterns across task types and translation directions. We recruited twenty-six Chinese L1 translators who completed en→zh and zh→en translation and post-editing tasks, yielding 104 eye-tracking sessions. Dependent measures were source reading time (TrtS), target reading time (TrtT), and target production duration (Dur). Predictors were derived from two model architectures, a decoder-only language model (LM) and an encoder–decoder neural machine translation (NMT) model, and they included monolingual surprisal, translation surprisal with source context, and attention features computed from models’ internal weights. Analyses showed that LM surprisal provided the strongest account of target reading, while source reading was most strongly predicted by encoder self-attention with LM surprisal, a robust secondary predictor, and target production duration drew on both LM and NMT translation surprisal. Direction effects were broader than task effects, especially on target measures. These findings suggest that although translation reading is bilingual in task structure, cumulative reading time is best explained by monolingual LM surprisal, whereas production duration additionally reflects NMT translation surprisal and revision behavior. Full article

A central question in second language (L2) sentence processing concerns how learners resolve referential ambiguity in real time, particularly when cues from their first language (L1) conflict with those of the target language. Given the substantial typological distance between Chinese (an analytic language) and Russian (a highly inflectional language), this study employs eye-tracking methodology to investigate the developmental trajectory of the cognitive mechanisms in referential ambiguity resolution among Chinese learners of Russian. The results revealed proficiency-related differences in ambiguity processing. Both proficiency groups showed increased processing difficulty when encountering ambiguous pronouns, indicating that referential ambiguity imposed a measurable online cost. High-proficiency learners read more efficiently overall, whereas low-proficiency learners showed a stronger first-mention anchoring pattern. These findings suggest that increasing L2 proficiency is associated with changes in processing efficiency and cue weighting during referential resolution. Notably, even high-proficiency learners did not categorically rely on Russian gender agreement to resolve reference in the morphologically disambiguated condition, suggesting that the integration of morphosyntactic cues into real-time reference resolution remains effortful at advanced proficiency. The study contributes eye-tracking evidence on how Chinese-speaking learners manage referential ambiguity in a morphologically rich L2. Full article

Background: Proficient second language (L2) reading relies on complex neurocognitive processes. Neuroimaging studies have identified key brain regions recruited during L2 reading, including the left inferior parietal lobule (LIPL) and the calcarine cortex (CAL). The LIPL has been suggested to be involved in phonological decoding during L2 reading, whereas the CAL has been implicated in early-stage visual processing. However, given the correlational nature of neuroimaging techniques, it remains unclear whether these regions play causal roles in L2 reading or are merely epiphenomenal. Methods: To address this issue, the present study used transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to modulate neural activity in these regions and eye-tracking technology to assess subsequent reading performance in Chinese–English bilinguals. Specifically, ninety-seven participants were randomly assigned to one of three offline TMS conditions: LIPL, CAL or vertex (as a control site) stimulation, after which they performed a natural sentence reading task in English. Results: The results showed that, compared to the control condition, TMS over the LIPL significantly reduced first fixation duration, whereas no significant effects emerged on gaze duration, regression path reading time, or total reading time. TMS over the CAL produced no significant effects on any eye-movement measures. Conclusions: These findings suggest that the LIPL plays a causal role in L2 reading for early-stage lexical processing through phonological decoding. Overall, this study is the first to employ TMS and eye-tracking to investigate the neural mechanisms underlying natural L2 reading. Full article

The fungal pathogen Metschnikowia bicuspidata causes “milky disease” in the Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis), which poses substantial challenges to sustainable aquaculture development considering the current lack of effective treatment interventions. To address this issue, in laboratory validation, we developed two rapid recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) detection methods for M. bicuspidata in E. sinensis targeting the histone acetyltransferase B-type subunit 2 gene (HAT-B2): an electrophoretic assay (RPA-AGE) and a colloidal gold lateral flow dipstick assay (RPA-LFD). We optimized RPA-AGE and RPA-LFD protocols for specific pathogen detection. Target detection was achieved within 35 min using RPA-AGE (30 min amplification at 37 °C followed by 5 min agarose gel electrophoresis), whereas RPA-LFD provided results in 15 min with high specificity (10 min amplification at 37 °C plus 5 min strip reading). Both methods exhibited exclusive specificity to M. bicuspidata, with no cross-reactivity with six pathogens, including Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Aeromonas hydrophila, Candida albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Microsporidia sp. The detection sensitivity of both platforms reached 4.8 copies/μL in laboratory validation. For field testing, the detection results from 30 field samples showed that although the 70% detection rate was lower than the 83.3% achieved by quantitative PCR, these approaches surpassed the detection rate of conventional PCR (53.3%). Notably, the RPA-LFD platform is applicable under field conditions as no specialized equipment is required. These rapid, sensitive, and specific detection systems provide practical tools for the early diagnosis and containment of M. bicuspidata infections in aquaculture settings. Full article

Background/Objectives: The functional architecture connecting speech production and reading comprehension remains unclear in multilinguals. This study investigated the cross-modal interaction between these systems in trilinguals to resolve the debate between Age of Acquisition (AoA) and usage frequency. Methods: We recruited 144 Uyghur (L1)–Chinese (L2)–English (L3) trilinguals, a population uniquely dissociating acquisition order from social dominance. Participants completed a production-to-comprehension priming paradigm, naming pictures in one language before performing a lexical decision task on translated words. Data were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models. Results: Significant cross-language priming confirmed an integrated lexicon, yet a fundamental asymmetry emerged. The top-down influence of production was governed by AoA; earlier-acquired languages (specifically L1) generated more effective priming signals than L2. Conversely, the bottom-up efficiency of recognition was driven by social usage frequency; the socially dominant L2 was the most receptive target, surpassing the heritage L1. Conclusions: The trilingual lexicon operates via “Two Rules”: a history-driven production system (AoA) and an environment-driven recognition system (Social Usage). This asymmetrical baseline challenges simple bilingual extensions and clarifies the dynamics of multilingual language control. Full article

Oculomotor reading behavior is influenced by both universal factors, like the “big three” of word length, frequency, and contextual predictability, and language-specific factors, such as script and grammar. The aim of this study was to examine the influence of the “big three” factors on L2 reading focusing on a typologically distant L1/L2 pair with dramatic differences in script and grammar. A total of 41 native Chinese-speaking learners of Russian (levels A2-B2) and 40 native Russian speakers read a corpus of 90 Russian sentences for comprehension. Their eye movements were recorded with EyeLink 1000+. We analyzed both early (gaze duration and skipping rate) and late (regression rate and rereading time) eye movement measures. As expected, the “big three” effects influenced oculomotor behavior in both L1 and L2 readers, being more pronounced for L2, but substantial differences were also revealed. Word frequency in L1 reading primarily influenced early processing stages, whereas in L2 reading it remained significant in later stages as well. Predictability had an immediate effect on skipping rates in L1 reading, while L2 readers only exhibited it in late measures. Word length was the only factor that interacted with L2 language exposure which demonstrated adjustment to alphabetic script and polymorphemic word structure. Our findings provide new insights into the processing challenges of L2 readers with typologically distant L1 backgrounds. Full article

Chinese lacks explicit word boundary markers, creating frequent temporary segmental ambiguities where character sequences permit multiple plausible lexical analyses. Skilled native (L1) Chinese readers resolve these ambiguities efficiently. However, mechanisms underlying word segmentation in second language (L2) Chinese reading remain poorly understood. Our study investigated: (1) whether L2 readers experience greater difficulty processing temporary segmental ambiguities compared to L1 readers, and (2) whether visual boundary cues can facilitate ambiguity resolution in L2 reading. We measured the eye movements of 102 skilled L1 and 60 high-proficiency L2 readers for sentences containing temporarily ambiguous three-character incremental words (e.g., “音乐剧” [musical]), where the initial two characters (“音乐” [music]) also form a valid word. Sentences were presented using either neutral mono-color displays providing no segmentation cues, or color-coded displays marking word boundaries. The color-coded displays employed either uniform coloring to promote resolution of the segmental ambiguity or contrasting colors for the two-character embedded word versus the final character to induce a segmental misanalysis. The L2 group read more slowly than the L1 group, employing a cautious character-by-character reading strategy. Both groups nevertheless appeared to process the segmental ambiguity effectively, suggesting shared segmentation strategies. The L1 readers showed little sensitivity to visual boundary cues, with little evidence that this influenced their ambiguity processing. By comparison, L2 readers showed greater sensitivity to these cues, with some indication that they affected ambiguity processing. The overall sentence-level effects of color coding word boundaries were nevertheless modest for both groups, suggesting little influence of visual boundary cues on overall reading fluency for either L1 or L2 readers. Full article

Reading comprehension in Chinese as a second language (L2 Chinese) presents unique challenges due to the language’s logographic writing system. Analysis of oral reading miscues reveals specific patterns in L2 learners’ reading processes and comprehension difficulties. Despite established theoretical frameworks for miscue analysis in alphabetic languages, empirical research on miscues in logographic systems such as Chinese remains limited, particularly regarding their relationship with reading comprehension. This study investigates the relationship between oral reading miscues and literal comprehension of Chinese texts among L2 Chinese learners. Sixty-six intermediate-level Chinese learners from U.S. universities participated in the study. Oral reading and sentence-level translation tasks were administered to examine miscues and assess comprehension. Through analyzing the oral reading data, we identified 14 types of oral reading miscues, and they were categorized into four categories: orthographic, syntactic, semantic, and word processing miscues. Results showed strong negative correlations between oral reading miscues and comprehension. Orthographic, syntactic, and semantic miscues were negatively correlated with reading comprehension performance, while word processing miscues showed no significant correlation with comprehension. The findings reveal the complex relationship between character recognition, word processing behaviors, and comprehension in L2 Chinese reading, and suggest a need for a nuanced approach to oral reading error correction in L2 Chinese reading instruction. Based on the findings, pedagogical implications for effective reading instruction and reading assessment in L2 Chinese classrooms are discussed. Full article

In reading, rapid and reliable word recognition relies on high-quality representations at both the lexical and sublexical levels, with stable and flexible connections between form, sound, and meaning. Earlier studies suggested that meaning knowledge affects the formation and quality of orthographic representation in language learning, but the impact of morphemic meaning frequency on learners’ word recognition was not explored. This research examined second language (L2) Chinese readers’ recognition of compound words containing ambiguous morphemes. Using lexical decision tasks in a priming paradigm, we found that dominant primes (i.e., primes with morphemes encoding dominant meanings) facilitated L2 readers’ recognition of subordinate targets. We suggested that dominant meanings are associated with higher-quality orthographic representations in learners and dominant primes; thus, they facilitate readers’ recognition of orthographically and morphologically related subordinate targets. This study confirmed the role of sublexical constituents’ meaning variables in word recognition in language learning. Full article

Research has found that contact with a second language (L2), L2 motivation and foreign language anxiety are important variables affecting L2 learning. Nevertheless, not much research has explored the relationships among these variables and their interactive effects on L2 learning outcomes. The present large-scale survey study examined the relationships between English learning motivation, English classroom anxiety and use of English, as well as their predictive effects on Chinese university students’ English achievement. A total of 439 randomly sampled students from two Chinese universities in Beijing answered the background information questionnaire, the 8-item English Classroom Anxiety Scale and the 35-item English Learning Motivation Questionnaire. The major findings were as follows: (a) English learning motivation, English classroom anxiety and use of English were significantly correlated with one another, and (b) English classroom anxiety, use of English and English learning motivation generally significantly predicted the students’ English achievements. These findings confirm the importance of L2 motivation, foreign language anxiety and contact with the L2 for second language learners. Hence, specific suggestions (e.g., reading and listening to more of a second language, creating a supportive and relaxed L2 classroom environment, etc.) are discussed regarding how to enhance L2 learning motivation, reduce foreign language anxiety and increase contact with the L2 in second language learning, so as to ensure sustainable development in second language learning. Full article

African swine fever virus (ASFV) has been responsible for the globally devastating epidemics in wild and domesticated pigs. Of the 24 identified ASFV genotypes, genotype II is the primary cause for the pandemic occurring in Europe and Asia since its emergence in Georgia in 2007. The current study aimed to characterize the full-length genomic pattern of the ASFV strain from Thailand, TH1_22/CR (Accession No. PP915735), which was then compared with genomic diversity across other Asian isolates using Georgia 2007/1 (Accession No. FR682468) as the reference. Viral DNA was isolated from the pig spleen sample following library preparation and paired-end sequencing using the MiSeq Illumina platform. The sequenced TH1_22/CR isolate spanned 189,395 nucleotides encoding 193 open reading frames (ORFs), exhibiting maximum nucleotide similarity (99.99%) with Georgian (Georgia 2007/1) and Chinese (Wuhan 2019-1 and China HLJ) isolates. Based on phylogenetic analysis, the TH1_22/CR isolate (Accession No. PP915735) was characterized as genotype II, serogroup 8, and IGR-II due to the presence of three tandem repeat sequences (TRSs). Genetic variations including SNPs and single and polynucleotide indels were identified in TH1_22/CR in agreement with other Asian isolates. For comprehensive analysis, the genome was divided into four regions (I–IV) based on gene location. Overall, the TH1_22/CR isolate demonstrated eight SNPs and indels in its genome. Two unique SNPs were reported in the coding regions of the TH1_22/CR isolate, out of which, a C-591-T substitution was seen in MGF 360-4L and a C-297-T was found in A238L, and four unique SNPs were reported in non-coding regions (NCRs). Furthermore, a 29 bp deletion was observed in the IGR between MGF 110-13La and MGF 110-13Lb, as well as 52 bp deletion in the ASFV G ACD 00350 gene. This comparative analysis establishes the foundational information for future studies on the diversity and phylogeography of this regionally significant genetic sub-group of ASFV. Full article

The Lanzhou lily (Lilium davidii var. unicolor) is a variant of the Sichuan lily of the lily family and is a unique Chinese ‘medicinal and food’ sweet lily. Somatic cell embryogenesis of Lilium has played an important role in providing technical support for germplasm conservation, bulb propagation and improvement of genetic traits. Somatic embryogenesis receptor-like kinases (SERKs) are widely distributed in plants and have been shown to play multiple roles in plant life, including growth and development, somatic embryogenesis and hormone induction. Integrating the results of KEGG enrichment, GO annotation and gene expression analysis, a lily LdSERK1 gene was cloned. The full-length open reading frame of LdSERK1 was 1875 bp, encoding 624 amino acids. The results of the phylogenetic tree analysis showed that LdSERK1 was highly similar to rice, maize and other plant SERKs. The results of the subcellular localisation in the onion epidermis suggested that the LdSERK1 protein was localised at the cell membrane. Secondly, we established the virus-induced gene-silencing (VIGS) system in lily scales, and the results of LdSERK1 silencing by Tobacco rattle virus (TRV) showed that, with the down-regulation of LdSERK1 expression, the occurrence of somatic embryogenesis and callus tissue induction in scales was significantly reduced. Finally, molecular assays from overexpression of the LdSERK1 gene in Arabidopsis showed that LdSERK1 expression was significantly enhanced in the three transgenic lines compared to the wild type, and that the probability of inducing callus tissue in seed was significantly higher than that of the wild type at a concentration of 2 mg/L 2,4-D, which was manifested by an increase in the granularity of the callus tissue. Full article

Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC., an important economic and medicinal herb, has a long history of being used as a traditional Chinese medicine. Its leaves have always been used as a raw material for the extraction of essential oils, comprising large amounts of terpenoids, which have good therapeutic effects on many diseases, such as eczema, bacterial infection, and hypertension. However, the genetic basis of terpenoid biosynthesis in this plant is virtually unknown on account of the lack of genomic data. Here, a combination of next-generation sequencing (NGS) and full-length transcriptome sequencing was applied to identify genes involved in terpenoid biosynthesis at five developmental stages. Then, the main components of essential oils in B. balsamifera were identified using GC–MS. Overall, 16 monoterpenoids and 20 sesquiterpenoids were identified and 333,860 CCS reads were generated, yielding 65,045 non-redundant transcripts. Among these highly accurate transcripts, 59,958 (92.18%) transcripts were successfully annotated using NR, eggNOG, Swissprot, KEGG, KOG, COG, Pfam, and GO databases. Finally, a total of 56 differently expressed genes (DEGs) involved in terpenoid biosynthesis were identified, including 38 terpenoid backbone genes and 18 TPSs, which provide a significant amount of genetic information for B. balsamifera. These results build a basis for resource protection, molecular breeding, and the metabolic engineering of this plant. Full article

Answering text-related questions while reading is a questioning strategy which is called adjunct questions or embedded questions, the benefits of which have been established in first-language reading as to enhance comprehension. The present study aims to study the effects different adjunct questions exert on second-language (L2) readers’ comprehension of texts of various types. One hundred and forty-four intermediate-level Chinese EFL learners participated in this study and were divided randomly into six groups. Each group was given either a narrative or an expository text with ‘what or why’ questions or no questions. A brief topic familiarity questionnaire was attached to the end of each text paper. The results showed that inserted adjunct questions improved the readers’ reading comprehension both in expository and narrative texts, but only narrative texts inserted with why questions had significant effects on the L2 reading comprehension. The findings suggested that text types and question types modulate the effects of inserted adjunct questions on the English reading of intermediate learners. Pedagogical implications and suggestions for future studies are provided. Full article

Drawing upon the division of labor between orthographic and phonological information, this study investigated whether and how L2 reading proficiency moderates learners’ reliance on phonological and orthographic information in retrieving word meanings. A total of 136 Chinese collegiate students who learned English as a foreign language (EFL) completed English reading proficiency tests and were divided into higher and lower reading proficiency groups using an extreme-group approach. Behavioral tasks were used to measure the participants’ sensitivity to and processing skills of orthographic and phonological information. The analysis showed that the reliance on phonological and orthographic information differed significantly across L2 reading proficiency groups: The higher reading proficiency group was sensitive to both phonological and orthographic information within words, while the lower reading proficiency group was only sensitive to orthographic information; only orthographic processing skills significantly contributed to the word meaning retrieval of individuals in the higher reading proficiency group, while phonological processing skills were the only predictor for the lower reading proficiency group. These results suggest that the use of phonological and orthographic information vary as a function of L2 learners’ English reading proficiency. Implications regarding the changing patterns of L1 influences and the language-universal and language-specific aspects of word recognition were discussed. Full article