Search Results (72)

This study presents a spatial and temporal characterization of radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure across six frequency bands (LTE 800, 900 MHz mobile band, LTE 1800, 2100 MHz mobile band, LTE 2600, and 5G NR 3600 MHz) at two central urban squares in Tirana, Albania: Karl Topia (KT, N = 86) and Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (MKA, N = 85). Each of 171 georeferenced points was surveyed in one 360 s daytime session (80 weekdays; 91 weekends; April–May 2026) using a NARDA SRM-3006 selective analyzer. A reproducible Python/GIS workflow combined band-wise root-sum-square aggregation, LOOCV-guided inverse-distance weighting, percentile hotspot sensitivity, temporal comparison, and multi-frequency compliance assessment. LTE 800 had the highest mean exposure (1.37–1.55 V/m). Pooled unadjusted weekday values exceeded weekend values in all bands; after adjustment for site and diurnal window with campaign-day-clustered standard errors, evidence remained for the 900 MHz, 2100 MHz, LTE 2600, and 5G NR 3600 bands, while spatial confounding could not be eliminated. The 5G NR 3600 Emax/Eact ratio was 6.8×, consistent with burst-like transmission but insufficient alone to confirm TDD behavior. All values were below ICNIRP 2020 reference levels (Q_Th = 0.0269). The results constitute site-specific initial reference data for the two surveyed squares rather than a national baseline; the workflow is transferable to comparable multi-band monitoring campaigns. Full article

With the increasing demand for clean energy and low-carbon transportation, next-generation vehicles integrating high-frequency electronic systems have become more complex, raising concerns about in-vehicle electromagnetic exposure. This paper reviews high-frequency devices operating in the 30 kHz–300 GHz range and systematically analyzes the spatial distribution and key frequency characteristics of electromagnetic sources in vehicles. The results show that, even under worst-case conditions, electromagnetic exposure levels for occupants remain well below the safety limits defined by ICNIRP. For example, in a worst-case 5.9 GHz V2V communication scenario, the driver’s head SAR_10g reaches 0.981 W/kg (9.81% of the ICNIRP occupational limit), while the whole-body SAR is only 0.008728 W/kg with negligible temperature rise. Other systems, including 5G-V2X, automotive radar, and mobile phones, also produce exposure levels far below safety thresholds. These findings suggest that RF exposure levels for vehicle occupants remain low relative to current guideline limits under the assessed scenarios. However, key challenges remain, including limited studies on multi-source exposure, insufficient data on vulnerable populations, simplified simulation conditions, lack of standardized validation methods, and inadequate assessment of emerging technologies. This work provides a quantitative basis for future safety standards and highlights critical research directions. Full article

Electrification of public transit is central to sustainable urban development, yet it introduces passenger exposure to extremely low-frequency magnetic fields (ELF-MFs), which the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifies as possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B). This study presents a systematic cross-platform comparison of ELF-MF exposure in direct current (DC) light rail and alternating current (AC) heavy rail systems operating under a single national regulatory framework. A total of 9100 continuous measurements were collected across 28 trips on the Tel Aviv Red Line light rail transit (1500 V DC) and the Israel Railways Tel Aviv–Binyamina corridor (25 kV, 50 Hz AC) during 23–26 November 2025, using calibrated Tenmars TM-192D gaussmeters. Mean passenger seat magnetic flux density was 0.226 ± 0.147 µT (2.26 ± 1.47 mG) for the DC system and 0.900 ± 0.606 µT (9.00 ± 6.06 mG) for the AC system. The difference was highly significant (Welch’s t = −73.06, p < 0.001). DC light rail exposure remained consistently below Israel’s precautionary 0.4 µT (4 mG) threshold for continuous public exposure, whereas AC heavy rail mean levels exceeded this threshold in every monitored trip while remaining far below ICNIRP general public reference levels. These findings highlight a “Green Dilemma” in sustainable transport policy: the environmental benefits of rail electrification must be balanced with prudent electromagnetic exposure management in jurisdictions applying strict precautionary limits. Full article

This paper presents a compact wearable patch antenna operating in the 2.4 GHz ISM band for biomedical Internet of Things (IoT)-based healthcare monitoring applications. The proposed antenna is intended for integration with wearable biomedical sensors in order to support real-time physiological data transmission in remote patient monitoring systems. The antenna was designed on an FR4 substrate to achieve good impedance matching and stable radiation performance. The antenna showed good performance, with a reflection coefficient of −39.56 dB and a gain of 3.01 dB. SAR analysis confirmed compliance with IEEE and ICNIRP safety standards for wearable applications. In addition, the antenna prototype was fabricated and experimentally validated using a vector network analyzer (VNA), showing good agreement between simulated and measured results. Furthermore, the proposed system was implemented by integrating an ESP32 microcontroller with a MAX30100 physiological sensor, where the sensor is responsible for acquiring real-time biomedical data, including heart rate and blood oxygen saturation (SpO₂). The ESP32 processes the acquired data and enables wireless transmission through the proposed antenna to a smartphone and laptop using the Blynk IoT platform, which allows real-time remote monitoring and visualization of physiological parameters. The obtained results confirm the suitability of the proposed antenna for wearable biomedical devices, remote healthcare monitoring, and IoT-enabled healthcare applications. Full article

Private 5G mobile networks are emerging as a platform for wireless connectivity in professional applications across smart industrial sectors such as automated warehousing, logistics, autonomous vehicle deployments in campus environments, mining, and material processing, among others. It is expected that most Machine-to-Machine (M2M) and Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) communication links will increasingly rely on wireless solutions, as the flexibility they offer provides clear advantages over hard-wired network installations. To gain insight into workers’ exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF EMF) emitted by 5G private mobile networks, an analysis was conducted based on measured and calculated RF EMF levels from various 5G private networks in real-world scenarios across different smart industrial sectors and R&D platforms in three countries. Several exposure scenarios were evaluated, including production facilities, logistics operations, office environments, and research sites. The installations included different configurations: private standalone and non-standalone 5G networks operating at 3.5 GHz and 26 GHz, as well as public networks with private slicing. The results clearly demonstrated that exposure levels in all investigated scenarios were well below existing exposure limits. In a typical indoor industrial environment where pico 5G base stations are deployed, the measured exposure was found to be no greater than 0.006% of the Directive 2013/35/EU action value and 0.03% of the ICNIRP guideline limits for the general public. Full article

This study presents a computational, simulation-based investigation of the dielectric response of human hand tissues, skin, fat, muscle, and bone to radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields emitted by mobile devices. The widespread adoption of handheld devices and the deployment of fifth-generation (5G) networks, including millimetre-wave (mmWave) bands, have intensified concerns regarding localized human exposure to RF radiation, particularly in the hand, which serves as the primary interface during device operation. Using validated dielectric property datasets, numerical simulations were performed across the frequency range of 0.5–40 GHz, employing the Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) method to solve Maxwell’s equations, with analytical evaluations conducted in Maple-18. A heterogeneous multilayer hand phantom was developed, and simulations were conducted under controlled exposure conditions, including a transmitted power of 1 W, antenna gain of 2 dBi, and incident power density of 5 W/m², consistent with ICNIRP and NCC safety guidelines. Tissue responses were assessed over a temperature range of 10–40 °C to account for thermal variability. The results demonstrate strong frequency- and temperature-dependent behaviour of dielectric properties, intrinsic impedance, reflection coefficient, attenuation, and specific absorption rate (SAR). At lower frequencies (<1 GHz), RF energy penetrated more deeply with distributed absorption and relatively low SAR values, whereas higher frequencies (3–40 GHz) produced highly localized absorption in superficial tissues, particularly skin and muscle. Increasing temperature led to significant increases in permittivity, conductivity, and SAR, with up to a twofold enhancement observed between 10 °C and 40 °C. These findings confirm that 5G and mmWave exposures result in predominantly surface-confined energy deposition in hand tissues. The study provides a robust computational framework for evaluating hand device electromagnetic interactions and offers quantitative insights relevant to antenna design, exposure compliance assessment, and the development of evidence-based safety guidelines. Full article

The rapid deployment of 5G technology has raised public concern regarding the potential health effects of electromagnetic radiation from mobile devices. This study systematically evaluates the specific absorption rate (SAR) and temperature distribution in a multi-layer spherical head model exposed to near-field radiation from a 5G mobile phone antenna. A planar inverted-F antenna (PIFA) covering the 3.5 GHz band was integrated into a smartphone model, and simulations were performed in COMSOL Multiphysics 6.3 under input powers of 21 dBm and 24 dBm at varying antenna–head distances. The results show that the peak SAR in the brain layer remained at 0.034 W/kg and 0.065 W/kg for the two power levels, both well below the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) safety limit of 2 W/kg. The highest SAR occurred in the scalp layer, decreasing gradually through the skull and brain tissues. After 30 min of exposure, the maximum brain temperature reached only 37.223 °C, far lower than the thermal damage threshold. Increasing the antenna–head distance from 5 mm to 30 mm reduced SAR by up to 50.2%, while temperature variations remained negligible (≤0.18%). These findings demonstrate that under typical usage conditions, 5G mobile phone radiation complies with international safety standards and poses no significant thermal risk, thereby contributing to a deeper understanding of bio-electromagnetic interactions and supporting ongoing wireless-communication safety assessments. Full article

With the rapid development of wireless communication systems, the electromagnetic environment in subway stations has become increasingly complex, raising concerns about the long-term safety of station attendants who are chronically exposed to radiofrequency (RF) fields. At present, multiphysics analyses specifically addressing RF antenna exposure scenarios for subway attendants remain limited. To assess occupational electromagnetic exposure risks, this paper establishes a comprehensive electromagnetic–thermal coupling simulation model incorporating RF antennas, station-platform structures, and a realistic human model with organs including the brain, heart, and liver. Using the finite-element software COMSOL Multiphysics (v.6.3), numerical simulations are performed to calculate the specific absorption rate (SAR) in the trunk and major organs of the subway station attendant at RF antennas frequencies of 900 MHz, 2600 MHz, and 3500 MHz, as well as the temperature rise distribution of the human trunk and important tissues and organs under different initial temperatures of the environment. The results show that among the three frequencies, the maximum SAR of 5.55 × ${10}^{-4}$ W/kg occurs in the trunk at 3500 MHz. Tissue temperatures reach thermal steady state after 30 min of exposure, with the maximum temperature rises occurring in the brain at an ambient temperature of 18 °C and an operating frequency of 900 MHz, reaching 0.2123 °C. Across all simulated scenarios, both SAR values and temperature rises remain significantly below the occupational exposure limits established by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). These findings indicate that RF radiation generated by antennas in the subway station environment poses low health risks to female station attendants of similar physical characteristics to the Ella model. This study provides a scientific reference for the occupational RF protection of subway personnel and contributes data for the development of electromagnetic exposure standards in rail transit systems. Full article

The potential health risks of DC charging piles to human health were investigated by quantifying the internal electromagnetic exposure level. In this study, the transformer in the DC/DC circuit of a DC charging pile was selected as the radiation source, and two realistic human models (adult and child) were used as exposure subjects. A simulation model, including the vehicle body, charging pile, and transformer, was established using COMSOL(COMSOL Multiphysics 6.2) Multiphysics software to calculate the magnetic induction intensity (B-field) and electric field intensity (E-field) in various organs at distances of 0.1 m, 0.3 m, and 0.6 m from the charging pile. The results show that at 0.1 m, the peak B-field (1.91 µT) and E-field (447 mV/m) in the adult body were 1.91% and 2.07% of the ICNIRP occupational exposure limits, respectively, and 7.07% and 4.14% of the public exposure limits. For the child model, the peak electromagnetic exposure levels (2.31 µT and 259 mV/m) were only 8.56% and 2.40% of the public limits. Further evaluation of exposure levels for in-vehicle occupants during charging showed that the peak B-field and E-field for an adult driver and a child in the front passenger seat were 0.0225 × 10⁻² µT, 0.0237 × 10⁻² µT, 5.81 mV/m, and 5.82 mV/m, respectively, far below the ICNIRP public limits. Additionally, analyses at multiple frequency bands (85 kHz, 90 kHz, and 95 kHz) under a typical scenario (adult at 0.1 m from the charging pile) revealed that the B-field in the human body decreased with increasing frequency, while the E-field showed minimal variation due to shielding effects. All electromagnetic exposure levels were below both ICNIRP public and occupational limits, indicating the broad applicability of the results. Under normal operating conditions of DC charging piles, the electromagnetic exposure from the DC/DC transformer fully complies with safety standards and poses no threat to human health. This study provides a scientific basis for alleviating public concerns about the health risks of electromagnetic radiation from DC charging piles for electric vehicles. Full article

High-voltage transmission lines are the backbone of modern power systems, facilitating the delivery of electricity from diverse generation sources, including conventional power plants and renewable energy systems, to consumers. As the electricity demand grows, the expansion of transmission infrastructure becomes essential to connecting new consumers with power suppliers. However, traditional transmission lines require significant right-of-way, posing challenges related to land use and environmental impact, as well as limited loadability. To address this issue, compact unconventional High Surge Impedance Loading (HSIL) transmission lines offer a viable solution by reducing right-of-way requirements while enhancing line natural power, mainly leading to less voltage drop. Before the implementation of the new unconventional HSIL lines, it is crucial to assess key parameters, such as magnetic field distribution under the lines, to ensure compliance with environmental and safety standards. This paper presents a numerical analysis of the magnetic field characteristics of compact unconventional HSIL transmission lines with different subconductor configurations. The results show that the proposed HSIL designs can reduce the magnetic field at ground level by up to 71.74% compared to a conventional 500 kV line near the center, as well as by up to 74% at the right-of-way edge, while maintaining magnetic field levels well below the limits set by ICNIRP and state-specific regulations. This study evaluates the magnetic field distribution within the right-of-way, providing insights into the electromagnetic performance and potential implications for transmission line design. Full article

The increase in the popularity of digital terrestrial television broadcasting and the expansion of Greece’s network infrastructure have raised concerns about the possible harmful effects of exposure to long-term radio frequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs) on sensitive groups. This study presents measurements of RF-EMFs generated in three locations of digital terrestrial television broadcast stations of the national public broadcasting company of Greece. The measurements and calculations of the radio frequency (RF) electric-field strength and RF electromagnetic field (EMF) power density were carried out in the near-field and far-field regions of the antenna of a digital television broadcasting station. In these three locations, the results of real measurements were compared to reports by the Greek Atomic Energy Commission (EEAE) and the limit levels of International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP). Full article

Since around the year 2000, following the introduction of electric vehicles (EVs) to the market, some people have expressed concerns about the level of magnetic flux density (MFD) inside vehicles. In 2013, we reported the results of MFD measurements for electric vehicles (EVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), and internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). However, those 2013 measurements were conducted using a chassis dynamometer, and no measurements were taken during actual driving. In recent years, with the rapid global spread of EVs and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), the international standard IEC 62764-1:2022, which defines methods for measuring magnetic fields (MF) in vehicles, has been issued. In response, and for the first time, we conducted new MF measurements on current Japanese vehicle models in accordance with the international standard IEC 62764-1:2022, identifying the MFD levels and their sources at various positions within EVs, PHEVs, and ICEVs. The measured MFD values in all vehicle types were below the reference levels recommended by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) for public exposure. Furthermore, we performed comparative measurements with the MF data obtained in 2013 and confirmed that the MF levels remained similar. These findings are expected to provide valuable insights for risk communication with the public regarding electromagnetic fields, particularly for those concerned about MF exposure inside electrified vehicles. Full article

Vehicles are rapidly evolving into objects of intelligent interconnection. Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) communications enable the interconnection between vehicles, while also leading to new electromagnetic exposure scenarios. This paper integrates a monopole array antenna into a shark-fin antenna on the car roof for V2V communications and evaluates the specific absorption rate (SAR) and temperature rise of a human body in a smart mobility communication scenario operating at 5.9 GHz. The V2V antenna is modeled and placed on a 3D vehicle model using COMSOL Multiphysics (v.6.2) to numerically estimate the SAR in the head and body regions of the human body model (adult male) inside the vehicle. Both the localized and whole-body 30 min average SAR are lower than the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) occupational restrictions for electromagnetic field exposure from 100 kHz to 6 GHz, being equal in the worst-case scenario to 0.981 W/kg (for the head), which is 9.81% of the ICNIRP limit (10 W/kg), and 0.008728 W/kg (for the whole-body average), which is 2.18% of the ICNIRP limit (0.4 W/kg). The 30 min average human core temperature rise is 0.055 °C, which is 5.5% of the ICNIRP limit. This indicates that, in typical automotive scenarios, the electromagnetic exposure from a monopole array antenna for V2V communications does not pose threat to the human body. This study provides knowledge related to emerging exposure scenarios in intelligent mobility communication, which is beneficial for evaluating possible health impacts and designing public health management policies. Full article

Magnetic Resonance (MR) technology is extensively used in academic and industrial research laboratories and represents one of the most significant methodologies in clinical radiology. Although MR does not use ionizing radiation, it cannot be considered risk-free due to the strong static magnetic fields and time-varying electromagnetic fields employed in the technology. To mitigate risks for MR operators, the European Community and ICNIRP have established safety limits based on the existing literature, primarily related to diagnostic MR. However, the literature on occupational exposure in non-clinical nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is limited. Due to their specificity, non-medical NMR environments present unique challenges from the point of view of operator exposure. NMR spectrometers are characterized by extremely high static magnetic fields, reaching up to 28 T in commercial systems; moreover, routine activities performed near the magnet, where field gradients are highest, increase operator exposure. Such environments are not typically perceived as hazardous and are frequented by various types of personnel, often without specific training. This study aims to highlight the critical issues in managing a preclinical MR laboratory equipped with a high-field NMR spectrometer, discussing operator safety challenges and presenting risk assessment data. Full article

The increasing deployment of IEEE 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6) networks necessitates an accurate assessment of radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposure under realistic usage scenarios. This study investigates the duty cycle (DC) and corresponding exposure levels of Wi-Fi 6 in controlled laboratory conditions, focusing on bandwidth variations, multi-user scenarios, and application types. DC measurements reveal significant variability across internet services, with FTP upload exhibiting the highest mean DC (94.3%) under 20 MHz bandwidth, while YouTube 4K video streaming showed bursts with a maximum DC of 89.2%. Under poor radio conditions, DC increased by up to 5× for certain applications, emphasizing the influence of degraded signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) on retransmissions and modulation. Weighted exposure results indicate a reduction in average electric-field strength by up to 10× when incorporating DC, with maximum weighted exposure at 4.2 V/m (6.9% of ICNIRP limits) during multi-user scenarios. These findings highlight the critical role of realistic DC assessments in refining exposure evaluations, ensuring regulatory compliance, and advancing the understanding of Wi-Fi 6’s EMF exposure implications. Full article