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A special issue of Viruses (ISSN 1999-4915). This special issue belongs to the section "Animal Viruses".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 1 August 2025 | Viewed by 16100

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Nariman Shahhosseini

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Guest Editor

Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4, Canada
Interests: arboviruses; entomology; zoonotic diseases; emerging pathogens
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Gary Kobinger

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Guest Editor

Galveston National Laboratory, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0610, USA
Interests: emerging infectious diseases; preparedness and response to infectious events and public health concerns; biosafety and biosecurity; vaccinology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Vector-borne viral diseases (VBVDs) are mainly of zoonotic origin, causing a major global concern. According to estimates from the World Health Organization, VBVDs account for more than 17% of all infectious diseases and 700,000 deaths per year. Recent evidence suggests that some vectors, including ticks and mosquitoes, can carry several pathogens, which could result in the co-transmission of two diseases by a single bite. Similar to how most infections are spread by a primary vector or reservoir, such as bats, secondary vectors, such as rodents, can also spread pathogens, providing more than one route for infection. In addition, VBVDs can be affected by a variety of peripheral factors, whether human, animal, or environmental, such as climate change.

In this Special Issue of Viruses (an open-access publishing journal), we wish to publish reviews and research articles documenting the current knowledge about emerging and re-emerging zoonotic diseases and VBVDs. We encourage submissions that address topics of epidemiology, genomics, vector–host–pathogen interactions, ecology, and evolution of zoonotic diseases, VBVDs, and associated vectors, vaccine development, and prevention and control measures.

We would like to welcome you and your team to submit an article to this Special Issue based on your expertise in this field.

Dr. Nariman Shahhosseini
Dr. Gary Kobinger
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Viruses is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

vector-borne viral diseases (VBVDs)
vector–host–pathogen interactions
emerging and re-emerging zoonotic diseases
vectors or reservoirs
vaccine development, and prevention and control measures

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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23 pages, 38205 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Screening of Neutralizing Antibodies Targeting Gc Protein of RVFV

by Chuanyi Zhao, Meng Hao, Ting Bian, Xiaofan Zhao, Xiangyang Chi, Zhengshan Chen, Guangcheng Fu, Zheng Zhu, Ting Fang, Changming Yu, Jianmin Li and Wei Chen

Viruses 2025, 17(4), 559; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17040559 - 12 Apr 2025

Viewed by 438

Abstract

Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is a mosquito-transmitted bunyavirus that can cause substantial morbidity and mortality in livestock and humans, for which there are no currently available licensed human therapeutics or vaccines. Therefore, the development of safe and effective antivirals is both necessary and urgent. The Gc protein is the primary target of the neutralizing antibody response related to Rift Valley fever virus. Here, we report one Gc-specific neutralizing antibody (NA137) isolated from an alpaca and one bispecific antibody (E2-NA137), the protective efficacies of which we evaluated in A129 mice. In this prophylactic study, the survival rates of the NA137 and E2-NA137 groups were both 80%, and in the treatment study, the survival rates were 20% and 60%, respectively. Altogether, our results emphasize that NA137 and E2-NA137 provide a potential approach for treating RVFV either prophylactically or therapeutically. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zoonotic and Vector-Borne Viral Diseases)

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24 pages, 6454 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Temporal and Spatial Analysis of Rabies Virus Lineages in South Africa

by Natalie Viljoen, Claude Sabeta, Wanda Markotter and Jacqueline Weyer

Viruses 2025, 17(3), 340; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17030340 - 28 Feb 2025

Viewed by 663

Abstract

Rabies virus (RABV; species Lyssavirus rabies) causes rabies, a disease of the central nervous system that invariably results in the death of the host. In South Africa, studies have indicated that RABV is maintained by animal species that include four wildlife carnivore species—the black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas), bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis), yellow mongoose (Cynictis penicillata), and aardwolf (Proteles cristatus)—and domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris). The complex natural ecology holds significant implications for the control and elimination of rabies. In this study, confirmed animal rabies case data, including geospatial features, were analyzed for 12,879 laboratory-confirmed animal cases reported on a database managed by the Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development (DALRRD). Sequence data generated from animal rabies cases in South Africa were also analyzed, which included 1374 cytoplasmic domain of the glycoprotein and the G-L intergenic sequences using maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference. The analysis provides insights into the transmission dynamics involving several wildlife species and domestic dogs in South Africa. This information is crucial for the strategic planning for rabies control and elimination programs, and particularly in understanding the interlinked nature of some lineages and the importance of the cross-border spread of rabies. This analysis provided an improved understanding of the distribution of the RABV lineages in South Africa and identified areas that can be targeted for rabies control strategies to limit future spread of RABV, which is important due to the limited available resources that must be carefully managed to allow optimal control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zoonotic and Vector-Borne Viral Diseases)

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15 pages, 1002 KiB

Open AccessArticle

West Nile Virus Seroprevalence Among Outdoor Workers in Southern Italy: Unveiling Occupational Risks and Public Health Implications

by Angela Stufano, Valentina Schino, Gabriele Sacino, Riccardo Ravallese, Roberto Ravallese, Leonarda De Benedictis, Anna Morea, Roberta Iatta, Simone Giannecchini, Maria A. Stincarelli, Maria Chironna, Claudia Maria Trombetta and Piero Lovreglio

Viruses 2025, 17(3), 310; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17030310 - 24 Feb 2025

Viewed by 553

Abstract

Background: West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne RNA virus, with birds as reservoirs and humans as incidental hosts. WNV often causes asymptomatic infections, but severe neuroinvasive disease occurs in fewer than 1% of human cases. Recent climatic changes and occupational exposure have increased its spread, particularly in Southern Italy. This study aimed to assess WNV seroprevalence and occupational risks among outdoor workers to guide targeted public health interventions. Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted in the Apulia region, southeastern Italy, from November 2023 to April 2024. Participants completed a detailed questionnaire on socio-demographics, occupational exposure, travel history, and health symptoms. Blood samples were analyzed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and neutralization assays to detect WNV-specific antibodies. Results: 250 outdoor workers in southeastern Italy were recruited, including agricultural workers, veterinarians, forestry workers, and livestock breeders. The latter showed the highest WNV prevalence at 6.5%. Protective measures such as repellent use (β = −0.145, OR = 0.95, p = 0.019) and personal protective equipment (PPE) usage (β = −0.12, OR = 0.94, p = 0.04) significantly reduced the likelihood of WNV infection. Conclusions: The study highlights the significant occupational risk posed by WNV to outdoor workers involved in livestock breeding in Southern Italy, likely due to their frequent exposure to mosquito-prone environments. Tailored public health strategies and education programs are needed to protect high-risk outdoor workers from WNV, amidst the backdrop of changing climatic conditions that favor increased transmission. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zoonotic and Vector-Borne Viral Diseases)

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17 pages, 4003 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cardiac Biomarkers in a Brazilian Indigenous Population Exposed to Arboviruses: A Cross-Sectional Study

by Jandir Mendonça Nicacio, Carlos Dornels Freire de Souza, Orlando Vieira Gomes, Beatriz Vasconcelos Souza, João Augusto Costa Lima, Rodrigo Feliciano do Carmo, Sávio Luiz Pereira Nunes, Vanessa Cardoso Pereira, Naiara de Souza Barros, Ana Luiza Santos de Melo, Lucca Gabriel Feitosa Lourencini, Jurandy Júnior Ferraz de Magalhães, Diego Guerra de Albuquerque Cabral, Ricardo Khouri, Manoel Barral-Netto and Anderson da Costa Armstrong

Viruses 2024, 16(12), 1902; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16121902 - 10 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1278

Abstract

Arthropod-borne viral diseases are acute febrile illnesses, sometimes with chronic effects, that can be debilitating and even fatal worldwide, affecting particularly vulnerable populations. Indigenous communities face not only the burden of these acute febrile illnesses, but also the cardiovascular complications that are worsened by urbanization. A cross-sectional study was conducted in an Indigenous population in the Northeast Region of Brazil to explore the association between arboviral infections (dengue, chikungunya, and Zika) and cardiac biomarkers, including cardiotrophin 1, growth differentiation factor 15, lactate dehydrogenase B, fatty-acid-binding protein 3, myoglobin, N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide, cardiac troponin I, big endothelin 1, and creatine kinase-MB, along with clinical and anthropometric factors. The study included 174 individuals from the Fulni-ô community, with a median age of 47 years (interquartile range 39.0 to 56.0). High rates of previous exposure to dengue, chikungunya, and Zika were observed (92.5%, 78.2%, and 95.4% anti-IgG, respectively), while acute exposure (anti-IgM) remained low. The biomarkers were linked to age (especially in the elderly), obesity, chronic kidney disease, and previous or recent exposure to chikungunya. This study pioneers the use of Luminex xMAP technology to reveal the association between cardiac inflammatory biomarkers and exposure to classical arboviruses in an Indigenous population undergoing urbanization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zoonotic and Vector-Borne Viral Diseases)

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12 pages, 4608 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evolutionary Relationships of Unclassified Coronaviruses in Canadian Bat Species

by Ayo Yila Simon, Maulik D. Badmalia, Sarah-Jo Paquette, Jessica Manalaysay, Dominic Czekay, Bishnu Sharma Kandel, Asma Sultana, Oliver Lung, George Giorgi Babuadze and Nariman Shahhosseini

Viruses 2024, 16(12), 1878; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16121878 - 4 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1359

Abstract

Bats are recognized as natural reservoirs for an array of diverse viruses, particularly coronaviruses, which have been linked to major human diseases like SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV. These viruses are believed to have originated in bats, highlighting their role in virus ecology and evolution. Our study focuses on the molecular characterization of bat-derived coronaviruses (CoVs) in Canada. Tissue samples from 500 bat specimens collected in Canada were analyzed using pan-coronavirus RT-PCR assays to detect the presence of CoVs from four genera: Alpha-CoVs, Beta-CoV, Gamma-CoV, and Delta-CoV. Phylogenetic analysis was performed targeting the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) gene. Our results showed an overall 1.4% CoV positivity rate in our bat sample size. Phylogenetic analysis based on the ~600 bp sequences led to the identification of an unclassified subgenus of Alpha-CoV, provisionally named Eptacovirus. The findings contribute to a better understanding of the diversity and evolution of CoVs found in the bat species of Canada. The current study underscores the significance of bats in the epidemiology of CoVs and enhances the knowledge of their genetic diversity and potential impact on global public health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zoonotic and Vector-Borne Viral Diseases)

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19 pages, 1722 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Attempted Transmission of Marburg Virus by Bat-Associated Fleas Thaumapsylla breviceps breviceps (Ischnopsyllidae: Thaumapsyllinae) to the Egyptian Rousette Bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus)

by Janusz T. Pawęska, Nadia Storm, Petrus Jansen van Vuren, Wanda Markotter and Alan Kemp

Viruses 2024, 16(8), 1197; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16081197 - 25 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1830

Abstract

Egyptian rousette bats (ERBs) are implicated as reservoir hosts for Marburg virus (MARV), but natural mechanisms involved in maintenance of MARV in ERB populations remain undefined. A number of hematophagous ectoparasites, including fleas, parasitize bats. Subcutaneous (SC) inoculation of ERBs with MARV consistently results in viremia, suggesting that infectious MARV could be ingested by blood-sucking ectoparasites during feeding. In our study, MARV RNA was detected in fleas that took a blood meal during feeding on viremic bats on days 3, 7, and 11 after SC inoculation. Virus concentration in individual ectoparasites was consistent with detectable levels of viremia in the blood of infected host bats. There was neither seroconversion nor viremia in control bats kept in close contact with MARV-infected bats infested with fleas for up to 40 days post-exposure. In fleas inoculated intracoelomically, MARV was detected up to 14 days after intracoelomic (IC) inoculation, but the virus concentration was lower than that delivered in the inoculum. All bats that had been infested with inoculated, viremic fleas remained virologically and serologically negative up to 38 days after infestation. Of 493 fleas collected from a wild ERB colony in Matlapitsi Cave, South Africa, where the enzootic transmission of MARV occurs, all tested negative for MARV RNA. While our findings seem to demonstrate that bat fleas lack vectorial capacity to transmit MARV biologically, their role in mechanical transmission should not be discounted. Regular blood-feeds, intra- and interhost mobility, direct feeding on blood vessels resulting in venous damage, and roosting behaviour of ERBs provide a potential physical bridge for MARV dissemination in densely populated cave-dwelling bats by fleas. The virus transfer might take place through inoculation of skin, mucosal membranes, and wounds when contaminated fleas are squashed during auto- and allogrooming, eating, biting, or fighting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zoonotic and Vector-Borne Viral Diseases)

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Review

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26 pages, 1669 KiB

Open AccessReview

Animal Models, Therapeutics, and Vaccine Approaches to Emerging and Re-Emerging Flaviviruses

by Thomas J. Baric and Z. Beau Reneer

Viruses 2025, 17(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17010001 - 24 Dec 2024

Viewed by 2051

Abstract

Flaviviruses are arthropod-borne viruses primarily transmitted through the mosquito Aedes aegypti or Culex genus of mosquitos. These viruses are predominantly found in tropical and subtropical regions of the world with their geographical spread predicted to increase as global temperatures continue to rise. These viruses cause a variety of diseases in humans with the most prevalent being caused by dengue, resulting in hemorrhagic fever and associated sequala. Current approaches for therapeutic control of flavivirus infections are limited, and despite recent advances, there are no approved drugs. Vaccines, available for a few circulating flaviviruses, still have limited potential for controlling contemporary and future outbreaks. Mouse models provide us with a valuable tool to test the effectiveness of drugs and vaccines, yet for many flaviviruses, well-established mouse models are lacking. In this review, we highlight the current state of flavivirus vaccines and therapeutics, as well as our current understanding of mouse models for various flaviviruses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zoonotic and Vector-Borne Viral Diseases)

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17 pages, 9316 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Specificity of Epizootic and Epidemiological Processes in Natural Foci of Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome and Tick-Borne Encephalitis in Russia, as the Basis for the Prospects of Creating a Combined Vaccine for the Prevention of These Infections

by Evgeniy Tkachenko, Alexandra Balkina, Dmitriy Trankvilevsky, Nadezda Kolyasnikova, Rostislav Teodorovich, Mikhail Vorovich, Yulia Popova, Svetlana Kurashova, Maria Egorova, Alla Belyakova, Petr Tkachenko, Aydar Ishmukhametov and Tamara Dzagurova

Viruses 2024, 16(8), 1292; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16081292 - 13 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1787

Abstract

Hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) and tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) are the most common viral diseases in Russia. HFRS is caused by six different types of hantaviruses: Hantaan, Amur, Seoul, Puumala, Kurkino, and Sochi, which are transmitted to humans through small mammals of the Muridae and Cricetidae families. TBE is caused by viruses belonging to five different phylogenetic subtypes. The similarities in the ecology of HFRS and TBE pathogens is presented here. Hantavirus-infected small mammals can transmit the virus to uninfected animals, and ticks can also transmit hantavirus to other ticks and mammals. Hantavirus transmission from ticks to humans is possible only hypothetically based on indirect data. Over the past 23 years, 164,582 cases of HFRS (4.9 per 10⁵ people) and 71,579 cases of TBE (2.5 per 10⁵ people) were registered in Russia. The mortality rate was 0.4% (668 cases) in HFRS and 1.6% deaths (1136 cases) in TBE. There were 4030 HFRS (2.5%) and 9414 TBE (13%) cases in children under 14 years old. HFRS and TBE cases were registered in 42 out of 85 Russian regions; in 18—only HFRS, in 13—only TBE, and 12 had no reported cases. The prospects of applying a combined vaccine for HFRS and TBE prevention are shown in this paper. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zoonotic and Vector-Borne Viral Diseases)

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14 pages, 1013 KiB

Open AccessReview

Exploring Iguape Virus—A Lesser-Known Orthoflavivirus

by Marielena V. Saivish, Maurício L. Nogueira, Shannan L. Rossi and Nikos Vasilakis

Viruses 2024, 16(6), 960; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16060960 - 14 Jun 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2788

Abstract

Brazil has earned the moniker “arbovirus hotspot”, providing an ideal breeding ground for a multitude of arboviruses thriving in various zoonotic and urban cycles. As the planet warms and vectors expand their habitat range, a nuanced understanding of lesser-known arboviruses and the factors that could drive their emergence becomes imperative. Among these viruses is the Iguape virus (IGUV), a member of the Orthoflavivirus aroaense species, which was first isolated in 1979 from a sentinel mouse in the municipality of Iguape, within the Vale do Ribeira region of São Paulo State. While evidence suggests that IGUV circulates among birds, wild rodents, marsupials, bats, and domestic birds, there is no information available on its pathogenesis in both humans and animals. The existing literature on IGUV spans decades, is outdated, and is often challenging to access. In this review, we have curated information from the known literature, clarifying its elusive nature and investigating the factors that may influence its emergence. As an orthoflavivirus, IGUV poses a potential threat, which demands our attention and vigilance, considering the serious outbreaks that the Zika virus, another neglected orthoflavivirus, has unleashed in the recent past. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zoonotic and Vector-Borne Viral Diseases)

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Other

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8 pages, 500 KiB

Open AccessBrief Report

ddPCR for the Detection and Absolute Quantification of Oropouche Virus

by Elena Pomari, Andrea Matucci, Silvia Accordini, Rebeca Passarelli Mantovani, Natasha Gianesini, Antonio Mori and Concetta Castilletti

Viruses 2024, 16(9), 1426; https://doi.org/10.3390/v16091426 - 7 Sep 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2169

Abstract

Background: Oropouche virus (OROV) is a segmented RNA virus belonging to the genus Orthobunyavirus in the family Peribunyaviridae. Herein, an in-house droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) assay was used for the detection and quantification of OROV. Methods: The ddPCR reaction was assessed as duplex assay using the human housekeeping gene RPP30. Limit of detection (LoD) analysis was performed in whole blood, serum, and urine. The assay was executed on a total of 28 clinical samples (whole blood n = 9, serum n = 11, and urine n = 8), of which 16 specimens were tested positive at the routine molecular diagnostics (endpoint and real-time PCRs). Results: The LoD of the ddPCR performed using 10-fold serial dilution of OROV detected up to 1 cp/µL in all the biological matrices. Compared to the routine molecular diagnostics, the ddPCR assay showed 100% sensitivity for whole blood and serum and 75% for urine, highlighting higher positive rate of ddPCR. Conclusion: We have established a quantitative RNA detection method of OROV with high sensitivity and specificity based on ddPCR. This test is capable of quantitatively monitoring the viral load of OROV and can contribute, in addition to laboratory diagnosis, to shed light on the pathogenesis, filling in the knowledge gaps of this neglected disease and to the vector control programs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zoonotic and Vector-Borne Viral Diseases)

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