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Viruses
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Tick-Borne Viruses 2026
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Tick-Borne Viruses 2026

A special issue of Viruses (ISSN 1999-4915). This special issue belongs to the section "General Virology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 October 2026 | Viewed by 6619

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Pat Nuttall

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Biology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3SZ, UK
Interests: arboviruses; tick-borne pathogen transmission

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Tick-borne viruses (TBVs) represent a significant and expanding public health threat, with increasing incidence and geographic range driven by complex ecological, environmental, and anthropogenic factors. These viruses, transmitted by hard and soft ticks, encompass diverse taxa, including flaviviruses, orthonairoviruses, and phenuiviruses, many of which cause severe and sometimes fatal disease in humans and domesticated animals. The dynamics of TBV transmission are intimately linked to tick ecology, host availability, and climatic variables, all of which are undergoing rapid change. The mechanisms of tick-borne transmission, including tick saliva-mediated host interactions, exosomes, and antiviral mechanisms, challenge our understanding of how TBVs survive. At the same time, advances in surveillance techniques, high-throughput processing, and data analysis are revealing novel viruses and shedding light on the evolutionary relationships and zoonotic potential of these agents.

This Special Issue brings together original research articles and reviews that span the molecular biology, transmission, vector–host interactions, ecology, and emerging control strategies for tick-borne viruses. Our aim is to provide a comprehensive update on the current state of the field and to highlight critical knowledge gaps that warrant future investigation.

Prof. Dr. Pat Nuttall
Guest Editor

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Keywords

  • tick-borne viruses
  • vector-borne pathogens
  • virus–tick–host interactions
  • saliva-assisted transmission
  • tick exosomes
  • tick antiviral mechanisms
  • virus evolution
  • surveillance

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review, Other

9 pages, 663 KB  
Article
Genetic Diversity of Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus in Kyrgyzstan
by Leyla H. Shigapova, Irina V. Kozlova, Galya V. Klink, Elena K. Doroshchenko, Olga V. Suntsova, Oksana V. Lisak, Elena I. Shagimardanova, Yuriy P. Dzhioev, Vladimir I. Zlobin and Sergey E. Tkachev
Viruses 2026, 18(1), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18010107 - 13 Jan 2026
Viewed by 609
Abstract
Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) causes tick-borne encephalitis (TBE), a severe disease of the human central nervous system. Currently, the data on the genetic variants of TBEV in Kyrgyzstan are practically absent. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze and describe the [...] Read more.
Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) causes tick-borne encephalitis (TBE), a severe disease of the human central nervous system. Currently, the data on the genetic variants of TBEV in Kyrgyzstan are practically absent. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze and describe the genetic diversity of TBEV in this region. The complete genome sequences of seven TBEV strains from the collection of the Scientific Centre for Family Health and Human Reproduction Problems (Irkutsk, Russia) were determined. These strains, isolated from Ixodes persulcatus ticks from Kyrgyzstan, were sequenced using the next generation sequencing approach on a MiSeq high-performance sequencer (Illumina, San Diego, CA, USA). A molecular genetic analysis of the obtained sequences, along with sequences of two previously isolated TBEV strains from Kyrgyzstan available in the GenBank database, demonstrated that the Siberian subtype of three genetic lineages (Zausaev, Vasilchenko and Bosnia) is predominantly distributed in Kyrgyzstan. The Far Eastern subtype of TBEV is also present. To date, this location probably represents the southernmost boundary of these TBEV subtypes’ ranges. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tick-Borne Viruses 2026)
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14 pages, 3998 KB  
Article
Dysregulation of microRNAs in the Brains of Mice Infected with Powassan Virus
by Amany Elsharkawy, Komal Arora, Hamid Reza Jahantigh and Mukesh Kumar
Viruses 2025, 17(10), 1288; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17101288 - 23 Sep 2025
Viewed by 1358
Abstract
microRNAs (miRNAs) are known to play critical roles in the regulation of gene expression during neurodegenerative diseases and neurotropic viral infections. However, their specific contribution to the pathogenesis of Powassan virus (POWV) infection in the brain remains poorly understood. Understanding miRNA dynamics in [...] Read more.
microRNAs (miRNAs) are known to play critical roles in the regulation of gene expression during neurodegenerative diseases and neurotropic viral infections. However, their specific contribution to the pathogenesis of Powassan virus (POWV) infection in the brain remains poorly understood. Understanding miRNA dynamics in the brain during POWV infection may reveal novel insights into viral neuropathogenesis and host antiviral responses. Therefore, in the present study, we analyzed miRNA expression profiles in the mouse brain at different time points following a peripheral POWV infection. A total of 599 miRNAs were examined at day 3, 6, and 9 post-infection. Infection with POWV resulted in the modulation of several miRNAs in the brain at all time points. There was a progressive increase in the number of dysregulated miRNAs over the course of infection. This correlated with POWV dissemination into the brain with a progressive increase in viral RNA levels that peaked at day 9 post-infection. There was an early upregulation of miR-1983, miR-19a, and miR-216b that persisted until day 9 post-infection. POWV infection also resulted in the downregulation of miR-500 at all examined time points. Using IPA, we determined the significant canonical pathways affected by miRNA dysregulation. POWV infection modulated the activation of the thyroid hormone receptor and retinoid X receptor (TR/RXR) and the regulation of the phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN). Additionally, macrophage classical activation and growth arrest and DNA damage-inducible 45 (GADD45) signaling were activated as early as day 3 post-infection and persisted until day 9 post-infection. Furthermore, our analysis revealed the activation of cell death pathways such as necrosis and apoptosis and the inhibition of cell cycle progression, as well as leukopoiesis. To our knowledge, this is the first study to evaluate the modulation of miRNAs in the brain following POWV infection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tick-Borne Viruses 2026)
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15 pages, 3221 KB  
Article
Development of a Deer Tick Virus Infection Model in C3H/HeJ Mice to Mimic Human Clinical Outcomes
by Dakota N. Paine, Erin S. Reynolds, Charles E. Hart, Jessica Crooker and Saravanan Thangamani
Viruses 2025, 17(8), 1092; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17081092 - 7 Aug 2025
Viewed by 1221
Abstract
Deer tick virus (DTV) is a Tick-Borne Orthoflavivirus endemic to the United States, transmitted to humans through bites from the deer tick, Ixodes scapularis, which is also the primary vector of Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., the causative agent of Lyme disease. Human [...] Read more.
Deer tick virus (DTV) is a Tick-Borne Orthoflavivirus endemic to the United States, transmitted to humans through bites from the deer tick, Ixodes scapularis, which is also the primary vector of Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., the causative agent of Lyme disease. Human infection with DTV can result in acute febrile illness followed by central nervous system complications, such as encephalitis and meningoencephalitis. Currently, there are mouse models established for investigating the pathogenesis and clinical outcomes of DTV that mimic human infections, but the strains of mice utilized are refractory to infection with B. burgdorferi s.l. Here, we describe the pathogenesis and clinical outcomes of DTV infection in C3H/HeJ mice. Neurological clinical signs, mortality, and weight loss were observed in all DTV-infected mice during the investigation. Infected animals demonstrated consistent viral infection in their organs. Additionally, neuropathology of brain sections indicated the presence of meningoencephalitis throughout the brain. This data, along with the clinical outcomes for the mice, indicates successful infection and showcases the neuroinvasive nature of the virus. This is the first study to identify C3H/HeJ mice as an appropriate model for DTV infection. As C3H/HeJ mice are already an established model for B. burgdorferi s.l. infection, this model could serve as an ideal system for investigating disease progression and pathogenesis of co-infections. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tick-Borne Viruses 2026)
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Review

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23 pages, 557 KB  
Review
Co-Feeding Transmission of Tick-Borne Viruses
by Sarah C. Macon-Foley and Meghan E. Hermance
Viruses 2026, 18(5), 513; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18050513 - 29 Apr 2026
Viewed by 396
Abstract
Tick-borne viruses (TBVs) are a diverse group of arthropod-borne pathogens maintained in complex transmission cycles involving both tick vectors and vertebrate hosts. Among the known TBV transmission routes, co-feeding transmission, in which virus is transferred from an infected tick to an uninfected tick [...] Read more.
Tick-borne viruses (TBVs) are a diverse group of arthropod-borne pathogens maintained in complex transmission cycles involving both tick vectors and vertebrate hosts. Among the known TBV transmission routes, co-feeding transmission, in which virus is transferred from an infected tick to an uninfected tick feeding on the same vertebrate host even in the absence of a detectable viremia, represents an important route that contributes to viral maintenance in nature. Although co-feeding transmission has been demonstrated across multiple vector, host, and virus combinations, the mechanisms governing this transmission route remain poorly defined. This review synthesizes current understanding of co-feeding transmission and highlights the importance of ecological and immunological factors that shape this process in nature. Specifically, we emphasize the role of the cutaneous microenvironment at the tick co-feeding site, where localized viral replication and tick salivary factors create conditions favorable for virus transfer between co-feeding ticks. We also highlight the requirements for co-feeding transmission to occur in nature and across seasons. Together, these insights support a model in which localized skin infection is a central feature of co-feeding transmission while underscoring key gaps in our understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms that govern this process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tick-Borne Viruses 2026)
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39 pages, 2866 KB  
Review
Skin Deep: Uncovering the Early Events of Crimean–Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus at the Tick–Host–Virus Interface
by Catherine Olal, Megan Burch and Dennis Bente
Viruses 2026, 18(4), 429; https://doi.org/10.3390/v18040429 - 1 Apr 2026
Viewed by 1308
Abstract
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) is transmitted predominantly through the bite of infected Hyalomma ticks, yet the earliest events at the vector–host–virus interface in human skin remain largely undefined. This review synthesizes current knowledge of human cutaneous structure and immunity, tick feeding biology, [...] Read more.
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) is transmitted predominantly through the bite of infected Hyalomma ticks, yet the earliest events at the vector–host–virus interface in human skin remain largely undefined. This review synthesizes current knowledge of human cutaneous structure and immunity, tick feeding biology, and salivary immunomodulation to propose how local skin responses may shape systemic outcomes of CCHFV disease. We detail the roles and permissiveness of major skin-resident and infiltrating cell types, including keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, dermal dendritic cells, monocytes/macrophages, fibroblasts, granulocytes, T cells, B cells, NK cells, and innate lymphoid cells, in antiviral defense and as potential early targets or carriers of CCHFV. Emphasis is placed on how tick saliva components reprogram the cutaneous microenvironment, alter interferon, complement, inflammasome, and cytokine pathways, and may enable saliva-assisted transmission and viral dissemination from the dermis. We highlight mounting evidence from other arboviruses demonstrating that the skin can act as both a barrier and a major amplifying organ, and we extrapolate testable hypotheses on how early cutaneous immune dynamics might influence CCHFV severity and hemorrhagic manifestations. Finally, we outline key knowledge gaps that, if answered, may inform the development of vaccines and therapeutics that harness cutaneous immunity to block systemic spread. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tick-Borne Viruses 2026)
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Other

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13 pages, 1121 KB  
Brief Report
Co-Circulation of Tick-Borne Bandaviruses and Orthonairoviruses Across Humans, Livestock, and Rats in Pakistan: Serologic Evidence and Public Health Implications
by Muhammad Ammar, Shengyao Chen, Muhammad Saqib, Jingyuan Zhang, Awais-Ur-Rahman Sial, Asad Zia, Yaohui Fang, Muhammad Khalid Mansoor, Abulimiti Moming, Asim Shahzad, Rehman Hafeez, Aneela Javed, Ali Hassan, Ben Hu, Ali Zohaib, Shu Shen and Fei Deng
Viruses 2025, 17(12), 1620; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17121620 - 15 Dec 2025
Viewed by 867
Abstract
Tick-borne viruses (TBVs) pose significant public health and economic threats. Pakistan has endemic Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV), but evidence suggests broader TBV circulation. This study assessed the seroprevalence of thirteen TBVs (seven are members of the genus Orthonairovirus and six are members [...] Read more.
Tick-borne viruses (TBVs) pose significant public health and economic threats. Pakistan has endemic Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV), but evidence suggests broader TBV circulation. This study assessed the seroprevalence of thirteen TBVs (seven are members of the genus Orthonairovirus and six are members of the genus Bandavirus) in humans, livestock, and rats in Punjab, Pakistan. Serum samples (n = 794: 321 livestock, 253 human, and 220 rat) were collected from the Narowal, Lahore, and Faisalabad districts. Antibodies to viral NPs were detected using the luciferase immunoprecipitation system (LIPS). The overall seroprevalence was 19.14% (152/794); it was highest in livestock (27.10%), then humans (20.55%), and then rats (5.91%). The highest seroprevalence rates were 3.12% for CCHFV in livestock, 3.56% for Yezo virus (YEZV) in humans, and 0.91% for Tamdy virus (TAMV) and Tacheng tick virus 1 (TcTV-1) in rats. Neutralizing antibodies were detected against CCHFV (1 cattle, 4 humans), Bhanja virus (BHAV) (3 livestock, 1 rat), TAMV (1 cattle), Guertu virus (GTV) (1 cattle), and Dabie bandavirus (2 cattle). Sixteen samples showed antibodies to both orthonairoviruses and bandaviruses, indicating co-exposure. Further analysis showed that seropositivity was not randomly distributed. Livestock kept in commercial farming systems and people working mainly outdoors had distinctly higher exposure to TBVs than subsistence livestock and indoor workers. The results supported the circulation of TBVs among hosts within the close socio-economic/ecological integration area of Pakistan. These findings confirm the circulation of CCHFV, SFTSV, GTV, and TAMV; provide the first serologic evidence of BHAV in Pakistan; and underscore the need for further investigation into the potential circulation of additional TBVs. All results demonstrated that multiple TBVs have been circulating among humans, livestock, and rodents in Pakistan. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tick-Borne Viruses 2026)
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