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Veterinary Sciences
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Monitoring Wildlife Health: Surveillance and Management of Infectious Diseases
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Monitoring Wildlife Health: Surveillance and Management of Infectious Diseases

A special issue of Veterinary Sciences (ISSN 2306-7381). This special issue belongs to the section "Veterinary Microbiology, Parasitology and Immunology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2026) | Viewed by 24554

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Branislav Kureljušić

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Guest Editor
Institute of Veterinary Medicine of Serbia, Janisa Janulisa 14, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
Interests: veterinary; virus
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Diana Lupulović

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Virology, Scientific Institute for Veterinary Medicine “Novi Sad”, Novi Sad, Serbia
Interests: veterinary virology and immunology; vector-borne diseases and zoonoses
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Amer Alić

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Pathology, University of Sarajevo—Veterinary Faculty, 71000 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Interests: veterinary pathology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Monitoring the health of wildlife is crucial as the expansion of human activities into natural habitats heightens the risk of zoonotic diseases. The movement of wildlife across borders has led to transboundary diseases becoming a primary concern for both animals and humans. While populations of certain species are growing, little is known about the pathogens they carry, some of which can pose risks to humans. However, wildlife can also provide valuable information that informs decision-making and guides preventive measures and disease control efforts. The surveillance and management of infectious diseases in wildlife are critical for safeguarding biodiversity, human health, and domestic animal populations. This Special Issue highlights the growing recognition of wildlife disease monitoring as a frontline defense against emerging zoonoses, exemplified by lessons from the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, which underscored the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health. Effective surveillance requires standardized methodologies, such as passive mortality reporting, hunter–harvest sampling, and non-invasive techniques (e.g., environmental DNA), to detect pathogens and assess the prevalence of disease. However, challenges persist due to ecological complexities, including fluctuations in host population dynamics and disease prevalence, which can bias surveillance outcomes and undermine risk assessments. Innovative approaches, such as agent-based modeling, have emerged to address sampling biases and optimize surveillance strategies, as demonstrated in the monitoring of chronic wasting disease in white-tailed deer. Case studies on sarcoptic mange in Alpine chamois and tuberculosis in wild boar further illustrate the importance of integrating epidemiological research into adaptive management. This Special Issue therefore advocates for national and international frameworks that harmonize wildlife health surveillance with One Health initiatives, emphasizing early detection, cross-sector collaboration, and capacity-building to mitigate the threat posed by endemic and emerging pathogens.

Dr. Branislav Kureljušić
Dr. Diana Lupulović
Dr. Amer Alić
Guest Editors

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Keywords

  • wildlife disease surveillance 
  • zoonotic diseases 
  • emerging infectious diseases 
  • non-invasive sampling 
  • population fluctuations 
  • one Health approach 
  • chronic wasting disease 
  • biodiversity conservation 
  • pathogen detection 
  • surveillance frameworks

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Related Special Issue

Published Papers (16 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

17 pages, 1060 KB  
Article
Organisation of Wildlife Passive Disease Surveillance in Slovenia over 30 Years (1995–2025) and Insights into Certain Causes of Disease or Mortality
by Gorazd Vengušt and Diana Žele Vengušt
Vet. Sci. 2026, 13(4), 360; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci13040360 - 7 Apr 2026
Viewed by 741
Abstract
Wildlife health surveillance is a vital element of disease prevention, biodiversity conservation, and public health protection, especially as most emerging infectious diseases originate from wildlife. In Slovenia, long-term passive surveillance based on necropsy data has yielded valuable insights into wildlife mortality patterns over [...] Read more.
Wildlife health surveillance is a vital element of disease prevention, biodiversity conservation, and public health protection, especially as most emerging infectious diseases originate from wildlife. In Slovenia, long-term passive surveillance based on necropsy data has yielded valuable insights into wildlife mortality patterns over the past three decades, despite inherent limitations such as carcass detectability, reporting bias, scavenging, and decomposition. Ongoing cooperation among governmental institutions, veterinary services, hunters, and wildlife management organisations has enabled the effective operation of this system, although passive surveillance remains subject to spatial, temporal, and species-specific biases. Necropsy data show that infectious diseases, particularly parasitic infections, are the main causes of mortality in key species such as roe deer and chamois, reflecting both their population abundance and targeted monitoring. In contrast, carcasses of species such as wild boar, red deer, small mammals, and birds are underrepresented due to ecological factors, biosecurity constraints, or low detectability. Overall, while passive wildlife surveillance does not provide representative population-level mortality estimates, it remains a reliable tool for identifying the presence or absence of significant diseases and for understanding broad mortality patterns when interpreted in the context of known methodological and ecological limitations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring Wildlife Health: Surveillance and Management of Infectious Diseases)
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14 pages, 517 KB  
Communication
Serological Survey of SARS-CoV-2 in Wild Canids in Serbia: First Report in Red Foxes and Golden Jackals
by Diana Lupulović, Jelena Maksimović Zorić, Branislav Kureljušić, Nemanja Krstić, Nemanja Jezdimirović, Amer Alić, Bojan Milovanović and Marija Gnjatović
Vet. Sci. 2026, 13(4), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci13040346 - 2 Apr 2026
Viewed by 631
Abstract
Following the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, there has been growing interest in investigating the transmission routes of SARS-CoV-2 and identifying the potential reservoirs in wildlife. To date, the virus has been detected in a wide range of wildlife animals. SARS-CoV-2 has also been [...] Read more.
Following the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, there has been growing interest in investigating the transmission routes of SARS-CoV-2 and identifying the potential reservoirs in wildlife. To date, the virus has been detected in a wide range of wildlife animals. SARS-CoV-2 has also been demonstrated to have the ability to infect dogs, raising concerns that other carnivores, such as free-living canids, might serve as a potential source of infection. The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of specific IgG antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 in golden jackals (Canis aureus) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Serbia. A total of 165 individuals from ten districts, including the City of Belgrade, were collected and examined from the beginning of August 2024 to the end of March 2025. Of this number, 17 samples were positive (17/165), which represents 10.3% of all the specimens tested. Among 83 red foxes, antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 were detected in 11 animals (13.3%), whereas reactive sera were identified in 6 of 82 jackals (7.3%). The analyses were performed using a commercial multi-species ELISA (IDVet, France), with the results confirmed by an in-house ELISA, previously developed for the detection of COVID-19 in humans and adapted for canids. Our findings confirm that wild animals are indeed exposed to SARS-CoV-2 infection, and that golden jackals and red foxes may represent a potential threat to human health. These results represent the first detection of SARS-CoV-2 seroconversion in wild carnivores in Serbia, highlighting the need for further surveillance and investigation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring Wildlife Health: Surveillance and Management of Infectious Diseases)
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14 pages, 304 KB  
Article
Antimicrobial Resistance in Escherichia coli from Captive Wild Felids: Associations with Host and Management Factors
by Sofia Caramujo, Raquel Abreu, Gonçalo Pereira, Eva Cunha, Luís Tavares, Emily McFarlane and Manuela Oliveira
Vet. Sci. 2026, 13(2), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci13020124 - 28 Jan 2026
Viewed by 912
Abstract
Understanding antimicrobial resistance (AMR) within a One Health framework requires examining how human–animal–environment interactions shape bacterial populations, and captive wildlife offers a unique context to explore these dynamics. This study aimed to characterise the phenotypic resistance and virulence profiles of Escherichia coli isolated [...] Read more.
Understanding antimicrobial resistance (AMR) within a One Health framework requires examining how human–animal–environment interactions shape bacterial populations, and captive wildlife offers a unique context to explore these dynamics. This study aimed to characterise the phenotypic resistance and virulence profiles of Escherichia coli isolated from faecal samples of captive non-domestic felids housed in a wildlife sanctuary in the United Kingdom and evaluate the influence of captive conditions in E. coli traits. A total of 41 faecal samples were collected from 36 animals representing 11 non-domestic felid species, from which it was possible to obtain 108 E. coli isolates identified using IMViC testing. The isolates were characterised regarding their susceptibility to 12 antibiotics by disc diffusion and screened for the phenotypic expression of six virulence factors, including protease, DNase, gelatinase, lecithinase, haemolysins, and biofilm formation. The highest resistance rates were observed for tetracycline (19.4%) and ampicillin (10.2%), while isolates presented complete susceptibility regarding half of the tested antibiotics. Also, 9.3% of the isolates presented a multidrug-resistant profile. Biofilm formation was the only virulence factor expressed by the isolates under study (8.3%). Significant associations were detected between resistance outcomes and levels of human proximity and enclosure type. These findings suggest that captivity-related factors may influence AMR profiles in wild felids and highlight the importance of continued AMR surveillance and appropriate management practices to reduce selective pressures in captive wildlife. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring Wildlife Health: Surveillance and Management of Infectious Diseases)
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16 pages, 1945 KB  
Article
Prevalence of Helminthiasis Among African Elephants in Tsavo and Laikipia-Samburu Ecosystems, Kenya
by Sophia K. Mogaka, Evans M. Mwangi, Folorunso O. Fasina and Wilkinson W. Mutahi
Vet. Sci. 2025, 12(12), 1161; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12121161 - 4 Dec 2025
Viewed by 757
Abstract
African elephants maintain a delicate balance between high intestinal helminth numbers and symptoms of poor health. However, calves and weaners face survival threats from damage caused by helminth infections and infestations during periods of starvation. Using coprological evaluations, we compared helminth infection patterns [...] Read more.
African elephants maintain a delicate balance between high intestinal helminth numbers and symptoms of poor health. However, calves and weaners face survival threats from damage caused by helminth infections and infestations during periods of starvation. Using coprological evaluations, we compared helminth infection patterns and selected risk factors in elephants from Tsavo and the Laikipia-Samburu ecosystem (LSE). Eggs and adult worms were identified and classified into genera using morphological and morphometric characteristics. Overall prevalence rates were high at 95.6% and 98.5% for Tsavo and Laikipia-Samburu, respectively, and 97.1% in total. Using the chi-squared test of independence, nematode prevalence rates (97.1%) were significantly different from trematodes (32.6%) (χ2(1) = 248.84, p < 0.001). Prevalence rates did not differ across age classes in the two populations. Using the Generalized Linear Model, sex had an independent significant effect on the observed mean worm burdens (F(1) = 5.842, p = 0.016, CI 95%), but neither age nor location did. However, the interaction had a significant effect on mean eggs per gram (EPGs) observed between age and location (F(1) = 14.043, p < 0.0005, CI 95%) and between age and sex (F(1) = 4.858, p = 0.028, CI 95%). Some of the identified helminth species may potentially lead to life-threatening gut mucosa hemorrhaging and ulcerations, particularly during stressful conditions, although the animals were not clinically evaluated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring Wildlife Health: Surveillance and Management of Infectious Diseases)
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14 pages, 2027 KB  
Article
Ecological Diversity of Migratory Birds and Their Associated Bacterial Species in South Korea: A Preliminary Study Including Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles
by Hyungju Lim, Jun-Gyu Park, Chung-Do Lee, Gun Lee, Jaewoo Choi, Hyeon Jeong Moon, Woo-Yuel Kim, Seulgi Seo, Gi-Chang Bing, Bock-Gie Jung, Yeong-Bin Baek, Dae Sung Yoo, Jun Bong Lee, Kwang-Jun Lee and Sang-Ik Park
Vet. Sci. 2025, 12(12), 1157; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12121157 - 4 Dec 2025
Viewed by 974
Abstract
Migratory birds travel long distances and interact with diverse environments, making them potential reservoirs and disseminators of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria. This study investigated the species distribution of migratory birds, bacterial isolates from bird internal organs, and the corresponding antimicrobial resistance (AMR) profiles in South [...] Read more.
Migratory birds travel long distances and interact with diverse environments, making them potential reservoirs and disseminators of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria. This study investigated the species distribution of migratory birds, bacterial isolates from bird internal organs, and the corresponding antimicrobial resistance (AMR) profiles in South Korea. A total of 35 bird carcasses representing 20 species were collected from five major stopover sites on the Sinan-gun islands along the East Asian–Australasian Flyway. More than half of the sampled birds belonged to the genus Emberiza, reflecting the prevalence of small migratory passerines in coastal habitats. From these carcasses, 54 bacterial isolates belonging to 24 species were identified, including Enterococcus spp., coliforms such as Enterobacter spp. and Escherichia coli, and opportunistic pathogens including Bacillus spp., Staphylococcus spp., and Serratia spp. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing revealed that 18 isolates (33.3%) were multidrug-resistant (MDR). Enterococcus isolates displayed high resistance to tigecycline and daptomycin, and two vancomycin-resistant strains were identified. Coliform isolates were resistant to third- and fourth-generation cephalosporins, carbapenems, and colistin. The two E. coli strains exhibited concurrent carbapenem–colistin resistance, posing a significant public health concern. These findings provide the first organ-level AMR dataset for migratory birds in South Korea and highlight the potential role of small passerines as ecological sentinels of environmental contamination. The detection of MDR strains underscores the need to integrate wildlife surveillance into One Health strategies for AMR monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring Wildlife Health: Surveillance and Management of Infectious Diseases)
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15 pages, 618 KB  
Article
Bubulcus ibis, Ciconia ciconia and Erinaceus europaeus from a Wildlife Recovery Center in Portugal as Potential Carriers of Resistant Escherichia coli
by Sofia Santos, Raquel Abreu, Diana Gomes, Catarina Geraldes, Gonçalo Pereira, Isa Serrano, Eva Cunha, Luís Tavares, María Casero and Manuela Oliveira
Vet. Sci. 2025, 12(9), 799; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12090799 - 23 Aug 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1233
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses an increasing threat to public health, with wildlife recognized as reservoirs and vectors of resistant bacteria. However, the role of wild species in the ecology of AMR remains insufficiently understood, highlighting the need to investigate resistant bacteria in these [...] Read more.
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses an increasing threat to public health, with wildlife recognized as reservoirs and vectors of resistant bacteria. However, the role of wild species in the ecology of AMR remains insufficiently understood, highlighting the need to investigate resistant bacteria in these animals. This study focused on detecting and characterizing Escherichia coli obtained from 43 fecal samples of white storks (Ciconia ciconia), cattle egrets (Bubulcus ibis), and European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) admitted to a wildlife rehabilitation center in Portugal. Resistance profiles to twelve antibiotics and six virulence factors were characterized phenotypically. ESBL production was also tested. A total of 79 E. coli isolates were obtained from 39 out of 43 samples, and 75 were selected for further characterization. All isolates tested negative for ESBL production. Approximately 64% (n = 48/75) of isolates were resistant to at least one antibiotic, and 5.3% (n = 4/75) were multidrug-resistant. Most frequent resistances were to ampicillin (36%, n = 27/75), tetracycline (12%, n = 9/75), and chloramphenicol (8%), while all isolates were susceptible to meropenem, aztreonam, and third-generation cephalosporins. Most isolates (81.3%, n = 61/75) lacked virulence factors. These findings suggest that wildlife may act as a reservoir of resistant strains, emphasizing importance of AMR monitoring and the One Health approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring Wildlife Health: Surveillance and Management of Infectious Diseases)
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12 pages, 2110 KB  
Article
Gut Microbiota Dynamics in Hibernating and Active Nyctalus noctula: Hibernation-Associated Loss of Diversity and Anaerobe Enrichment
by Ilia V. Popov, Daria A. Peshkova, Ekaterina A. Lukbanova, Inna S. Tsurkova, Sergey A. Emelyantsev, Anastasya A. Krikunova, Aleksey V. Malinovkin, Michael L. Chikindas, Alexey M. Ermakov and Igor V. Popov
Vet. Sci. 2025, 12(6), 559; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12060559 - 6 Jun 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1688
Abstract
Hibernation in mammals entails profound physiological changes that are known to impact host-associated microbial communities, yet its effects on the gut microbiota of synanthropic bats remain underexplored. In this study, we investigated the gut bacterial composition and diversity of Nyctalus noctula before and [...] Read more.
Hibernation in mammals entails profound physiological changes that are known to impact host-associated microbial communities, yet its effects on the gut microbiota of synanthropic bats remain underexplored. In this study, we investigated the gut bacterial composition and diversity of Nyctalus noctula before and during hibernation using high-throughput 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. Fecal samples from individually banded bats were collected under controlled conditions at a rehabilitation center and analyzed for alpha and beta diversity, as well as differential taxonomic abundance. Hibernation was associated with a marked reduction in microbial diversity according to the Shannon and Simpson indices and a distinct restructuring of gut communities based on the Bray–Curtis dissimilarity index. Active bats exhibited a diverse microbiota enriched in facultative anaerobes, including Lactococcus, Enterococcus, and Escherichia–Shigella, while hibernating individuals were dominated by obligate anaerobes, such as Romboutsia and Paeniclostridium. These findings suggest a contraction and functional specialization of the gut microbiota during torpor, potentially reflecting adaptations to fasting, hypothermia, and reduced gut motility. Our results demonstrate that the bat’s gut microbiome is highly responsive to physiological status and underscore the importance of microbial ecology for understanding the host’s energy balance and health under seasonal contexts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring Wildlife Health: Surveillance and Management of Infectious Diseases)
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13 pages, 503 KB  
Article
Exploring Antimicrobial Resistance in Bacteria from Fecal Samples of Insectivorous Bats: A Preliminary Study
by Santina Di Bella, Delia Gambino, Maria Foti, Bianca Maria Orlandella, Vittorio Fisichella, Francesca Gucciardi, Francesco Mira, Rosario Grasso, Maria Teresa Spena, Giuseppa Purpari and Annalisa Guercio
Vet. Sci. 2025, 12(6), 516; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12060516 - 25 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1837
Abstract
Bats (order Chiroptera) are increasingly recognized as important reservoirs and potential vectors of pathogenic and antimicrobial-resistant bacteria (ARB), with potential implications for human, animal, and environmental health. This study aimed to assess the presence and antimicrobial resistance profiles of bacterial isolates from bat [...] Read more.
Bats (order Chiroptera) are increasingly recognized as important reservoirs and potential vectors of pathogenic and antimicrobial-resistant bacteria (ARB), with potential implications for human, animal, and environmental health. This study aimed to assess the presence and antimicrobial resistance profiles of bacterial isolates from bat populations in Sicily, an area for which data are currently limited. A total of 132 samples (120 rectal swabs and 12 guano samples) were collected at four sites in the provinces of Catania, Siracusa, and Ragusa. Bacteriological analysis yielded 213 isolates, including 161 Gram-negative and 52 Gram-positive strains, representing 55 different species. Among Gram-negative isolates, Escherichia coli, Citrobacter freundii, and Morganella morganii were most frequently detected, while Bacillus licheniformis and Staphylococcus xylosus were predominant among Gram-positive bacteria. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing revealed high resistance rates to colistin, amoxicillin, and ampicillin in Gram-negative strains, and to oxacillin, ceftazidime, and lincomycin in Gram-positive strains. Notably, 84.5% of isolates exhibited multidrug resistance. These findings highlight the potential role of bats as reservoirs of ARB and underline the importance of ongoing monitoring within a One Health framework to mitigate risks to public and animal health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring Wildlife Health: Surveillance and Management of Infectious Diseases)
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17 pages, 1777 KB  
Article
Genetic Diversity of Canine Circovirus Detected in Wild Carnivores in Serbia
by Damir Benković, Jakov Nišavić, Nenad Milić, Dejan Krnjaić, Isidora Prošić, Vladimir Gajdov, Nataša Stević, Ratko Sukara, Martina Balać and Andrea Radalj
Vet. Sci. 2025, 12(6), 515; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12060515 - 24 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1660
Abstract
Canine circovirus (CanineCV) is an emerging virus of interest in both domestic and wild carnivores that is scarcely reported in southeastern Europe. This study examined the presence, genetic diversity, and evolutionary characteristics of CanineCV in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and golden [...] Read more.
Canine circovirus (CanineCV) is an emerging virus of interest in both domestic and wild carnivores that is scarcely reported in southeastern Europe. This study examined the presence, genetic diversity, and evolutionary characteristics of CanineCV in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and golden jackals (Canis aureus) from northwestern Serbia, a region marked by expanding mesopredator populations overlapping with human habitats. Out of 98 sampled animals, circoviral DNA was detected in 31.6%. Jackals were mostly positive for CanineCV genotype 4, while genotype 5, associated with wild carnivores, was dominant in foxes. Mixed genotype 4/genotype 5 infections were only found in jackals. Phylogenetic and haplotype analyses indicated that most jackal-derived CanineCV strains clustered along sequences from Europe, Africa, and the Americas, while genotype 5 sequences grouped separately from other genotype representatives. A recombinant strain was identified as a divergent lineage, and several sequences showed evidence of recombination between Rep and Cap genes. Despite Cap protein amino acid differences, purifying selection dominated, suggesting functional constraints on viral evolution. The results indicate that jackals may act as recombination hotspots and bridging hosts between viral lineages. This study provides insight into the molecular epidemiology of CanineCV in the Balkans, highlighting the importance of ongoing surveillance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring Wildlife Health: Surveillance and Management of Infectious Diseases)
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20 pages, 18295 KB  
Article
Metagenomic Insights into the Diverse Antibiotic Resistome of Non-Migratory Corvidae Species on the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau
by You Wang, Quanchao Cui, Yuliang Hou, Shunfu He, Wenxin Zhao, Zhuoma Lancuo, Kirill Sharshov and Wen Wang
Vet. Sci. 2025, 12(4), 297; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12040297 - 23 Mar 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2011
Abstract
Antibiotic resistance represents a global health crisis with far-reaching implications, impacting multiple domains concurrently, including human health, animal health, and the natural environment. Wild birds were identified as carriers and disseminators of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) and their associated antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). A [...] Read more.
Antibiotic resistance represents a global health crisis with far-reaching implications, impacting multiple domains concurrently, including human health, animal health, and the natural environment. Wild birds were identified as carriers and disseminators of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) and their associated antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). A majority of studies in this area have concentrated on migratory birds as carriers for the spread of antibiotic resistance over long distances. However, there has been scant research on the resistome of non-migratory Corvidae species that heavily overlap with human activities, which limits our understanding of antibiotic resistance in these birds and hinders the development of effective management strategies. This study employed a metagenomics approach to examine the characteristics of ARGs and mobile genetic elements (MGEs) in five common Corvidae species inhabiting the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau. The ARGs were classified into 20 major types and 567 subtypes. Notably, ARGs associated with multidrug resistance, including to macrolide–lincosamide–streptogramins, tetracyclines, beta-lactam, and bacitracin, were particularly abundant, with the subtypes acrB, bacA, macB, class C beta-lactamase, and tetA being especially prevalent. A total of 5 types of MGEs (166 subtypes) were identified across five groups of crows, and transposase genes, which indicated the presence of transposons, were identified as the most abundant type of MGEs. Moreover, some common opportunistic pathogens were identified as potential hosts for these ARGs and MGEs. Procrustes analysis and co-occurrence network analysis showed that the composition of the gut microbiota shaped the ARGs and MGEs, indicating a substantial association between these factors. The primary resistance mechanisms of ARGs in crows were identified as multidrug efflux pumps, alteration of antibiotic targets, and enzymatic inactivation. High-risk ARGs which were found to potentially pose significant risks to public health were also analyzed and resulted in the identification of 81 Rank I and 47 Rank II ARGs. Overall, our study offers a comprehensive characterization of the resistome in wild Corvidae species, enhancing our understanding of the potential public health risks associated with these birds. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring Wildlife Health: Surveillance and Management of Infectious Diseases)
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Review

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31 pages, 2989 KB  
Review
Integrated Hunting Strategies for African Swine Fever Control in Wild Boar: A Comparative Review of Experiences in European Continent
by Silvia Pavone, Clara Montagnin, Carmen Iscaro, David Ranucci and Francesco Feliziani
Vet. Sci. 2026, 13(4), 340; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci13040340 - 31 Mar 2026
Viewed by 777
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF) has become one of the most significant transboundary animal diseases affecting countries worldwide. Wild boars play a major role in virus persistence and in local spread through geographical contiguity, while long-distance and transboundary dissemination is more commonly associated with [...] Read more.
African swine fever (ASF) has become one of the most significant transboundary animal diseases affecting countries worldwide. Wild boars play a major role in virus persistence and in local spread through geographical contiguity, while long-distance and transboundary dissemination is more commonly associated with human-mediated activities, particularly the movement of contaminated pork products and materials. Hunting is frequently considered a central tool for disease control; however, its epidemiological impact remains debated. This review comparatively analyses the approaches adopted by countries of European continent affected by ASF, paying particular attention to the role of hunting within integrated management strategies. The review examines country-specific control measures, including surveillance systems, carcass search and removal, fencing, zoning, and population reduction policies. The analysis shows that successful eradication was associated with early detection, temporary suspension of hunting in infected core areas, rapid spatial containment through fencing, and intensive passive surveillance based on systematic carcass removal. Hunting was reintroduced only after containment, as a regulated depopulation tool under strict biosecurity supervision. In contrast, where the virus was already widespread at detection and containment measures were delayed or fragmented, intensified hunting alone did not prevent endemic persistence. These findings indicate that hunting is neither inherently protective nor detrimental; rather, its effectiveness depends on timing, coordination, and integration within a structured epidemiological framework. Effective control requires combining wildlife management with surveillance, biosecurity, and clear governance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring Wildlife Health: Surveillance and Management of Infectious Diseases)
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28 pages, 3582 KB  
Review
Rabies and Pinnipeds Reviewed: Premonitions, Perturbations, and Projections?
by Charles E. Rupprecht and Aniruddha V. Belsare
Vet. Sci. 2026, 13(2), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci13020200 - 19 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1597
Abstract
Rabies is an acute, progressive, viral encephalitis. Warm-blooded vertebrates are susceptible. Major reservoirs reside in the Chiroptera and Carnivora. Among the latter, representatives include dogs, ferret badgers, foxes, jackals, mongooses, raccoons, and skunks. Within the Carnivora, pinnipeds represent a diverse group of >30 [...] Read more.
Rabies is an acute, progressive, viral encephalitis. Warm-blooded vertebrates are susceptible. Major reservoirs reside in the Chiroptera and Carnivora. Among the latter, representatives include dogs, ferret badgers, foxes, jackals, mongooses, raccoons, and skunks. Within the Carnivora, pinnipeds represent a diverse group of >30 extant species. These marine mammals range from the Arctic to Antarctica, but there is no review about rabies in this group. Apparently, only a single 1980 case of rabies occurred from Svalbard in a ringed seal (Phoca hispida). However, in 2024, incidental cases appeared within South African Cape fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus). Retrospective testing of archival material identified suspect cases dating back to 2022. Currently, more than 80 cases have been documented in seals. Moreover, a new 2025 focus appeared in Namibia and cases in Angola are predictable. Viral characterization supports spillover infection via rabid black-backed jackals (Lupulella mesomelas). A host shift appears likely, with ongoing seal intraspecific transmission. Given the unique nature of this epizootic, implications for the southern hemisphere abound. Unfortunately, comprehensive data are lacking on pinniped specimens examined outside of southern Africa. For example, although Antarctica is considered ‘rabies-free’, minimal international standards for support are unmet. No routine laboratory-based surveillance occurs. This enzootic rabies focus among seals in southern Africa presents unique challenges for the region and a rare opportunity for considering broader surveillance. Besides targeted parenteral vaccination of fur seals, local engagement involves vagrant species, including elephant (Mirounga leonina) and leopard seals (Hydrurga leptonyx). The void of regional pinniped surveillance, especially encompassing the Southern Ocean would require considerable proactive local resolution and much wider collaboration regarding future concerns to both public health and conservation biology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring Wildlife Health: Surveillance and Management of Infectious Diseases)
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20 pages, 567 KB  
Review
Hepatitis E in Wildlife: Emerging Threats to Human Health
by Slavica M. Vesković Moračanin, Branislav I. Kureljušić, Jelena Maletić, Jasna M. Kureljušić, Nemanja V. Jezdimirović, Ana M. Vasić, Bojan Z. Milovanović and Božidar M. Savić
Vet. Sci. 2026, 13(2), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci13020160 - 6 Feb 2026
Viewed by 900
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a significant public health concern and a leading cause of acute viral hepatitis worldwide. In recent years, HEV has been increasingly recognized as a wildlife-associated zoonotic pathogen, with numerous free-ranging species contributing to its maintenance and transmission. While [...] Read more.
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a significant public health concern and a leading cause of acute viral hepatitis worldwide. In recent years, HEV has been increasingly recognized as a wildlife-associated zoonotic pathogen, with numerous free-ranging species contributing to its maintenance and transmission. While domestic pigs remain the primary reservoir for human infection globally, growing evidence indicates that wild animals, particularly wild boars, cervids, lagomorphs, rodents, and carnivores, play a critical role in the ecology of HEV. Wild boars are the principal wildlife reservoir, with HEV seroprevalence in Europe ranging from less than 5% to more than 50%, including some of the highest levels reported in the Balkans. In addition to the frequent detection of HEV RNA in wild boar liver and muscle, viral RNA has also been identified in several other game species, most consistently in red deer, roe deer, and, in some regions, hares and wild rabbits, highlighting food safety risks associated with the consumption of raw or undercooked game meat. In regions such as the Balkans, where hunting activities and handling of wild game are widespread, these practices may further increase occupational and dietary exposure to HEV. Rodents may further complicate the epidemiological landscape through environmental contamination of water, soil, and farm surroundings, thereby facilitating indirect transmission pathways. As wildlife populations expand and human–animal interfaces intensify, understanding HEV dynamics in free-ranging species is essential for assessing zoonotic risks and implementing a strengthened One Health approach. This narrative review synthesizes and critically examines current evidence on HEV prevalence, molecular characteristics, and transmission pathways in wildlife, with particular emphasis on Europe and focused consideration of the Balkans as an epidemiologically heterogeneous and underrepresented subregion; examines associated public health implications; and highlights the importance of integrating wildlife into food safety and One Health surveillance frameworks. Existing knowledge gaps and limitations in wildlife surveillance are also discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring Wildlife Health: Surveillance and Management of Infectious Diseases)
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41 pages, 3024 KB  
Review
An Overview of Avian Vaccination Options in Zoological Collections in Europe
by Jonas Leus, Margot Morel, Hermann Kempf, Francis Vercammen, Remco A. Nederlof and Jaco Bakker
Vet. Sci. 2026, 13(2), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci13020148 - 4 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1563
Abstract
Captive bird populations in zoological institutions face unique disease risks due to close interspecies contact and human interaction. Vaccination is widely used as a prophylactic measure. However, most available vaccines are developed for poultry and are used off-label in non-domesticated birds, often without [...] Read more.
Captive bird populations in zoological institutions face unique disease risks due to close interspecies contact and human interaction. Vaccination is widely used as a prophylactic measure. However, most available vaccines are developed for poultry and are used off-label in non-domesticated birds, often without species-specific safety and efficacy data. This review provides a comprehensive overview of vaccines reported in zoo-housed birds for major viral, bacterial, and fungal pathogens. This review highlights that for most vaccines, evidence of safety and effectiveness is limited. Vaccine use should therefore be guided by risk assessment, relevant legislation, and institutional priorities, and should integrate species-specific data on vaccine safety and effectiveness, disease susceptibility, and local epidemiology. Extensive research and species-specific validation are essential to improve preventive health strategies in avian conservation programs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring Wildlife Health: Surveillance and Management of Infectious Diseases)
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14 pages, 1282 KB  
Review
A Review of the Sentinel Role of Erinaceus europaeus in Zoonotic Diseases Across Urban and Rural Environments: A One Health Perspective
by Sofia Rosa, Ana C. Silvestre-Ferreira and Felisbina Pereira Queiroga
Vet. Sci. 2026, 13(1), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci13010029 - 27 Dec 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 870
Abstract
The western-European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) is widely distributed across Europe and increasingly interacts with humans and domestic animals due to urban expansion and habitat fragmentation. This review synthesize current knowledge on the zoonotic agents associated with E. europaeus and evaluates its [...] Read more.
The western-European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) is widely distributed across Europe and increasingly interacts with humans and domestic animals due to urban expansion and habitat fragmentation. This review synthesize current knowledge on the zoonotic agents associated with E. europaeus and evaluates its potential role as a sentinel species within a One Health framework. Numerous bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and helminths have been reported in this species, reflecting its ecological adaptability and continuous exposure to diverse environmental sources of infection. The hedgehog’s ability to thrive in both rural and urban settings makes it a valuable bioindicator of environmental health, pathogen circulation and anthropogenic pressures. Understanding the ecological interactions and pathogen dynamics of E. europaeus contributes to improving surveillance strategies, supporting integrated approaches to disease prevention and control, and reinforcing the importance of wildlife in One Health initiatives. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring Wildlife Health: Surveillance and Management of Infectious Diseases)
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14 pages, 2928 KB  
Review
Temporal Dynamics and Surveillance of Highly Pathogenic H5 Avian Influenza in Wild Birds in Northern Serbia (2016–2025)
by Biljana Djurdjević, Milena Samojlović, Diana Lupulović, Tamaš Petrović, Vladimir Polaček, Slobodan Knežević and Marko Pajić
Vet. Sci. 2025, 12(9), 894; https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12090894 - 15 Sep 2025
Viewed by 2298
Abstract
Wild birds, particularly migratory waterfowl (family Anatidae), are the primary reservoir of avian influenza viruses, playing a key role in their transboundary spread. In the winter of 2016/2017, the H5N8 strain was first recorded in Serbia, with 20 outbreaks confirmed in wild birds [...] Read more.
Wild birds, particularly migratory waterfowl (family Anatidae), are the primary reservoir of avian influenza viruses, playing a key role in their transboundary spread. In the winter of 2016/2017, the H5N8 strain was first recorded in Serbia, with 20 outbreaks confirmed in wild birds by 2021, mostly involving mute swans in the Vojvodina region. From 2021 onward, the dominant strain was H5N1, with 38 confirmed outbreaks up to 2023, primarily affecting mute swans, black-headed gulls, and common cranes. Sporadic H5N2 outbreaks were also detected, with two cases in 2021 and 2023. Due to its rich ornithofauna, natural reserves, and habitats suitable for migratory birds, the Vojvodina region has been officially designated as a high-risk zone by the Veterinary Directorate of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management of the Republic of Serbia. While sporadic cases occurred in backyard poultry, commercial farms remained unaffected. Infections peaked in autumn and early spring. Control measures included enhanced biosecurity, movement restrictions, and removal of dead birds to protect domestic poultry. Despite the circulation of avian influenza virus in wild birds, Serbia’s commercial poultry industry avoided outbreaks and major economic losses. Including outbreak data provided insight into the scale and persistence of avian influenza threats in this region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring Wildlife Health: Surveillance and Management of Infectious Diseases)
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