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Symmetry
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Symmetry and Asymmetry in Biomechanics and Gait Mechanics
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Symmetry and Asymmetry in Biomechanics and Gait Mechanics

A Special Issue of Symmetry (ISSN 2073-8994) belonging to the section "E: Life Sciences".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 April 2027 | Viewed by 7152

Editor

Prof. Dr. Bianca Callegari

E-Mail
Guest Editor
Institute of Health Sciences, Federal University of Pará (UFPA), Belém 66075110, PA, Brazil
Interests: biomechanics of human movement; symmetry and asymmetry in gait mechanics; sensor-based motion tracking for performance analysis; wearable technologies for gait and balance assessment; computational modeling of human movement; biomechanics of sports performance and injury prevention; movement symmetry in rehabilitation and assistive technology design; gait variability and its role in health and functional performance; application of biomechanical principles to optimize sports techniques; integration of technology for real-time movement analysis and feedback

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue explores the role of symmetry and asymmetry in biomechanics and gait mechanics, focusing on their impact across health, human movement, and performance optimization. Symmetry often represents balance and efficiency, while asymmetries can reflect strategic adaptations, physical demands, or biomechanical constraints. Investigating these factors contributes to advancements in understanding functional dynamics, improving health outcomes, and optimizing performance in sports, rehabilitation, and assistive technology design. By bridging health sciences, sports, and engineering, this Issue provides a comprehensive perspective on symmetry and asymmetry in biomechanical applications.

Prof. Dr. Bianca Callegari
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Symmetry is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • biomechanics
  • gait mechanics
  • symmetry
  • asymmetry
  • health
  • human movement
  • performance optimization
  • rehabilitation
  • assistive technologies
  • sports science

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Published Papers (4 papers)

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Research

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10 pages, 919 KB  
Article
Understanding Weightbearing Symmetries During Crawling in Typically Developing Infants and Infants with Limb Loss
by Mark D. Geil, Jill Cannoy, Emma Stockwell, Colleen Coulter, Megan Knapp, Lyle Blackwelder, Lucas Northway and Austin Brown
Symmetry 2025, 17(9), 1558; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym17091558 - 17 Sep 2025
Viewed by 3575
Abstract
Crawling is an almost universal stage of locomotor development in infants; however, it is difficult to quantify using typical motion analysis techniques. The crawling stage therefore has underutilized potential to assess development and detect deviations or abnormalities. This study measured longitudinal weightbearing asymmetries [...] Read more.
Crawling is an almost universal stage of locomotor development in infants; however, it is difficult to quantify using typical motion analysis techniques. The crawling stage therefore has underutilized potential to assess development and detect deviations or abnormalities. This study measured longitudinal weightbearing asymmetries in typically developing (TD) crawling children and compared this population to children with limb loss or limb differences (LLD) using a pressure-sensing mat. The LLD group bore significantly more weight using their arms vs. their legs than the TD group (p < 0.001), but even in cases of unilateral limb loss, bilateral weightbearing symmetry was similar to TD, controlling for body mass and age (p = 0.570). As children in the TD group developed and gained body mass, their weight shifted significantly to their left side (η2 = 0.050) and away from their arms and toward their legs (η2 = 0.255). The results provide insight into the biomechanical development of TD infant crawling, and the ways in which an atypically developing population manages weightbearing during crawling. The establishment of symmetry data will be useful, as crawling can serve as an opportunity for earlier detection of neuromotor conditions such as cerebral palsy. Furthermore, insight into the crawling patterns of children with limb loss and limb difference can inform prosthetic prescription and the need to consider a missing weight shift toward the legs as children develop. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Symmetry and Asymmetry in Biomechanics and Gait Mechanics)
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24 pages, 2447 KB  
Article
Pilot Study: Effects of High-Intensity Training on Gait Symmetry and Locomotor Performance in Neurodivergent Children
by Noah D. Chernik, Melody W. Young, Reuben N. Jacobson, Stratos J. Kantounis, Samantha K. Lynch, James Q. Virga, Matthew J. Cannata, Hannah M. English, Pranav Krish, Anand Kanumuru, Alexander Lopez and Michael C. Granatosky
Symmetry 2025, 17(7), 1073; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym17071073 - 6 Jul 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1953
Abstract
Neuromuscular gait deficits in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are often overlooked. High-intensity training protocols may improve running performance, but their efficacy in pediatric populations is underexplored. This study evaluates the impact of a high-intensity running protocol on locomotor performance in neurotypical [...] Read more.
Neuromuscular gait deficits in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are often overlooked. High-intensity training protocols may improve running performance, but their efficacy in pediatric populations is underexplored. This study evaluates the impact of a high-intensity running protocol on locomotor performance in neurotypical and neurodivergent children (children with ASD). Spatiotemporal gait characteristics (speed, stride frequency, stride length, and duty factor), gait symmetry (symmetry ratio), and kinematics were assessed for ten neurodivergent children (10–15 years old) during a 15 m sprint. Locomotor costs (cost of locomotion, transport, and locomotion per stride) were analyzed in six neurodivergent participants (11–14 years old) via open-flow respirometry during treadmill running. Participants completed a 5–12 week, twice-weekly program; neurotypical participants served as a control group. Neurodivergent and neurotypical children exhibited baseline differences in spatiotemporal variables. Following training, neurodivergent participants demonstrated statistically significant improvements in spatiotemporal metrics and locomotor costs. Differences in symmetry between the two groups were not present pre- or post-program. These findings highlight the efficacy of high-intensity running programs in improving sensorimotor function and coordination in children with ASD. This program provides valuable insights into gross motor rehabilitation for neurodivergent children, supporting its potential as an effective intervention. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Symmetry and Asymmetry in Biomechanics and Gait Mechanics)
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Review

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14 pages, 541 KB  
Review
Gait Asymmetry and Metabolic Demand in Lower Limb Prosthesis Users: A Scoping Review
by Moaz Tobaigy and M. G. Finco
Symmetry 2026, 18(8), 1299; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym18081299 - 31 Jul 2026
Viewed by 408
Abstract
Background: Lower limb prosthesis users commonly exhibit gait asymmetry that may increase metabolic demand. Gait asymmetry, therefore, is frequently targeted in rehabilitation to improve walking efficiency. This review aimed to investigate whether interventions that improve gait asymmetry reduce metabolic demand in unilateral lower [...] Read more.
Background: Lower limb prosthesis users commonly exhibit gait asymmetry that may increase metabolic demand. Gait asymmetry, therefore, is frequently targeted in rehabilitation to improve walking efficiency. This review aimed to investigate whether interventions that improve gait asymmetry reduce metabolic demand in unilateral lower limb prosthesis users. Methods: A search of relevant English-language articles was conducted using PubMed and CINAHL, yielding a total of 1067 records. Following title, abstract, and full-text screening, 10 studies met eligibility requirements and were included in the qualitative synthesis. Data extraction focused on participant characteristics, gait asymmetry measures, metabolic outcomes, and intervention characteristics. Results: Four main intervention categories were identified: advanced prosthetic knees and ankles, prosthetic mass manipulation, feedback-based gait interventions, and exercise-based training. Across studies, changes in gait symmetry were not consistently associated with reductions in metabolic demand. Interventions targeting ankle function showed the most consistent reductions in metabolic demand, particularly during demanding walking tasks. In contrast, distal prosthetic mass addition consistently increased metabolic demand and worsened gait symmetry. Conclusion: Current evidence does not support a consistent or direct relationship between gait symmetry and metabolic demand in lower limb prosthesis users. Gait asymmetry may not be inherently metabolically disadvantageous and may represent an energetically optimal adaptation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Symmetry and Asymmetry in Biomechanics and Gait Mechanics)
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Other

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24 pages, 1521 KB  
Systematic Review
Development-Dependent Gait Symmetry in Healthy Children: A Systematic Review and Quantitative Synthesis of Reliability and Asymmetry Magnitude
by Teodora Dominteanu, Amelia Elena Stan and Andreea Voinea
Symmetry 2026, 18(6), 993; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym18060993 - 10 Jun 2026
Viewed by 349
Abstract
Gait symmetry in healthy children is frequently interpreted as a marker of biomechanical balance; however, its developmental trajectory and measurement stability remain incompletely defined. This systematic review with structured quantitative synthesis aimed to evaluate (i) the reliability of instrumented symmetry measures and (ii) [...] Read more.
Gait symmetry in healthy children is frequently interpreted as a marker of biomechanical balance; however, its developmental trajectory and measurement stability remain incompletely defined. This systematic review with structured quantitative synthesis aimed to evaluate (i) the reliability of instrumented symmetry measures and (ii) the magnitude of physiological asymmetry across childhood. Following PRISMA guidelines, 500 records were identified, of which 297 met inclusion criteria for qualitative synthesis. Forty-six studies provided extractable numerical data for quantitative integration, representing approximately 9420 participants. Reliability aggregation demonstrated strong repeatability of plantar pressure symmetry measures (ICC = 0.88), whereas stabilometric indices showed lower consistency (ICC = 0.54), highlighting the importance of instrument-aware interpretation. Quantitative synthesis revealed small but consistent asymmetry in healthy children (Hedges’ g = 0.31 for plantar pressure; g = 0.18 for temporal–spatial parameters), with the magnitude decreasing progressively from early childhood to adolescence. These findings indicate that complete bilateral equivalence is not a normative standard in pediatric gait. Instead, symmetry represents a development-dependent continuum shaped by neuromotor maturation and measurement context. Age-specific reference ranges and standardized asymmetry indices are essential for clinical interpretation and future methodological harmonization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Symmetry and Asymmetry in Biomechanics and Gait Mechanics)
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