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IEEE 802.11 and Wireless Sensors Network

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Sensor Networks".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2021) | Viewed by 30000

Special Issue Editor

Department of Network Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), 08034 Barcelona, Spain
Interests: wireless networks, wireless communications, Wi-Fi, IEEE 802.11, Internet of Things (IoT), 5G

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

It’s been almost 25 years since the release of the first IEEE 802.11 standard. The convenience of avoiding cable-based deployments and enabling user mobility using a license-free frequency band rapidly made IEEE 802.11 a widespread technology, even becoming a de facto standard for wireless LAN. In fact, that was the initial goal of the IEEE P802.11 Working Group: the development of a communications standard intended to provide wireless access to a LAN; that is to say, enabling wireless connectivity to portable computers such as laptops, netbooks, etc. However, the economy of scale that followed the early and rapid adoption of that technology, along with a very dynamic standardization and certification ecosystem through the Wi-Fi Alliance, spread its presence to a wide variety of scenarios and use cases, making Wi-Fi more than just a WLAN technology. Nowadays, billions of devices are connected via a Wi-Fi certified interface in a panoply of applications, many of which were not in scope when designing the technology.

Some of the scenarios not initially foreseen for the Wi-Fi technology include the wireless sensor networks (WSN) or, more generally, the Internet of Things (IoT); a market with phenomenal growth in perspective. Those applications impose a set of requirements that differ largely from the familiar scenario of a domestic or enterprise-level LAN: support to a large number of connected devices, long coverage range, and low energy consumption, among others. However, the IEEE P802.11WG and the Wi-Fi Alliance have always been vigilant and ready to embrace the challenge of pushing forward the technology according to the evolving needs for wireless connectivity.

IEEE 802.11s, IEEE 802.11ah (Wi-Fi HaLow), IEEE 802.11ba, and several features included in the IEEE 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6) and under discussion for the future IEEE 802.11be (Wi-Fi 7), focus on improving the performance of Wi-Fi in a sensor network, or in an IoT scenario. Task Group TGbf even studies the use of IEEE 802.11 hardware as a motion or presence sensor. However, there are still challenges for the IEEE 802.11 technology in such scenarios.

For those reasons, this special issue is aimed at collecting high-quality research papers and review articles focusing on the latest trends in the use of IEEE 802.11 in wireless sensor network and IoT scenarios. We seek original papers showing recent advances in low-power, long-range Wi-Fi applications, papers identifying and tackling the new challenges of IEEE 802.11-based wireless sensor networks, the proposal of new mechanisms to improve Wi-Fi-enabled IoT, etc. that have not been published before and are not currently under review by other journals or conferences.

Dr. Eduard Garcia-Villega
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sensors is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Use of IEEE 802.11 standards in applications for smart city, smart grid, or intelligent transportation systems
  • Performance evaluation of IEEE 802.11 features in WSN and IoT scenarios
  • Location-aware WSN and IoT applications based on IEEE 802.11 (including, but not limited to IEEE 802.11az)
  • IEEE 802.11-based Wake-Up Radio applications (including, but not limited to IEEE 802.11ba)
  • Latest advances in IEEE 802.11ah (Wi-Fi HaLow) networks
  • Latest advances for IoT and WSN in future IEEE 802.11be
  • IEEE 802.11-based wireless mesh networking for low power and sensor applications
  • Wi-Fi sensing techniques and applications
  • Cross-Technology communications for heterogeneous IoT (i.e. enabling communications between devices with non-compatible wireless NICs).

Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

23 pages, 523 KiB  
Article
An Analytical Model for the Aggregate Throughput of IEEE 802.11ah Networks under the Restricted Access Window Mechanism
by Stephanie M. Soares and Marcelo M. Carvalho
Sensors 2022, 22(15), 5561; https://doi.org/10.3390/s22155561 - 26 Jul 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1596
Abstract
The IEEE 802.11ah is an amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard to support the growth of the Internet of Things (IoT). One of its main novelties is the restricted access window (RAW), which is a channel access feature designed to reduce channel contention [...] Read more.
The IEEE 802.11ah is an amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard to support the growth of the Internet of Things (IoT). One of its main novelties is the restricted access window (RAW), which is a channel access feature designed to reduce channel contention by dividing stations into RAW groups. Each RAW group is further divided into RAW slots, and stations only attempt channel access during the RAW slot they were assigned to. In this paper, we propose a discrete-time Markov chain model to evaluate the average aggregate throughput of IEEE 802.11ah networks using the RAW mechanism under saturated traffic and ideal channel conditions. The proposed analytical model describes the behavior of an active station within its assigned RAW slot. A key aspect of the model is the consideration of the event of RAW slot time completion during a station’s backoff operation. We study the average aggregate network throughput for various numbers of RAW slots and stations in the network. The numerical results derived from our analytical model are compared to computer simulations based on an IEEE 802.11ah model developed for the ns-3 simulator by other researchers, and its performance is also compared to two other analytical models proposed in the literature. The presented results indicate that the proposed analytical model reaches the closest agreement with independently-derived computer simulations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue IEEE 802.11 and Wireless Sensors Network)
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17 pages, 4222 KiB  
Article
Bandwidth-Based Wake-Up Radio Solution through IEEE 802.11 Technology
by Elena Lopez-Aguilera and Eduard Garcia-Villegas
Sensors 2021, 21(22), 7597; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21227597 - 16 Nov 2021
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1776
Abstract
IEEE 802.11 consists of one of the most used wireless access technologies, which can be found in almost all consumer electronics devices available. Recently, Wake-up Radio (WuR) systems have emerged as a solution for energy-efficient communications. WuR mechanisms rely on using a secondary [...] Read more.
IEEE 802.11 consists of one of the most used wireless access technologies, which can be found in almost all consumer electronics devices available. Recently, Wake-up Radio (WuR) systems have emerged as a solution for energy-efficient communications. WuR mechanisms rely on using a secondary low-power radio interface that is always in the active operation mode and is in charge of switching the primary interface, used for main data exchange, from the power-saving state to the active mode. In this paper, we present a WuR solution based on IEEE 802.11 technology employing transmissions of legacy frames by an IEEE 802.11 standard-compliant transmitter during a Transmission Opportunity (TXOP) period. Unlike other proposals available in the literature, the WuR system presented in this paper exploits the PHY characteristics of modern IEEE 802.11 radios, where different signal bandwidths can be used on a per-packet basis. The proposal is validated through the Matlab software tool, and extensive simulation results are presented in a wide variety of scenario configurations. Moreover, insights are provided on the feasibility of the WuR proposal for its implementation in real hardware. Our approach allows the transmission of complex Wake-up Radio signals (i.e., including address field and other binary data) from legacy Wi-Fi devices (from IEEE 802.11n-2009 on), avoiding hardware or even firmware modifications intended to alter standard MAC/PHY behavior, and achieving a bit rate of up to 33 kbps. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue IEEE 802.11 and Wireless Sensors Network)
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43 pages, 1619 KiB  
Article
Adaptive Multi-Channel Clustering in IEEE 802.11s Wireless Mesh Networks
by Michael Rethfeldt, Tim Brockmann, Benjamin Beichler, Christian Haubelt and Dirk Timmermann
Sensors 2021, 21(21), 7215; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21217215 - 29 Oct 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2448
Abstract
WLAN mesh networks are one of the key technologies for upcoming smart city applications and are characterized by a flexible and low-cost deployment. The standard amendment IEEE 802.11s introduces low-level mesh interoperability at the WLAN MAC layer. However, scalability limitations imposed by management [...] Read more.
WLAN mesh networks are one of the key technologies for upcoming smart city applications and are characterized by a flexible and low-cost deployment. The standard amendment IEEE 802.11s introduces low-level mesh interoperability at the WLAN MAC layer. However, scalability limitations imposed by management traffic overhead, routing delays, medium contention, and interference are common issues in wireless mesh networks and also apply to IEEE 802.11s networks. Possible solutions proposed in the literature recommend a divide-and-conquer scheme that partitions the network into clusters and forms smaller collision and broadcast domains by assigning orthogonal channels. We present CHaChA (Clustering Heuristic and Channel Assignment), a distributed cross-layer approach for cluster formation and channel assignment that directly integrates the default IEEE 802.11s mesh protocol information and operating modes, retaining unrestricted compliance to the WLAN standard. Our concept proposes further mechanisms for dynamic cluster adaptation, including subsequent cluster joining, isolation and fault detection, and node roaming for cluster balancing. The practical performance of CHaChA is demonstrated in a real-world 802.11s testbed. We first investigate clustering reproducibility, duration, and communication overhead in static network scenarios of different sizes. We then validate our concepts for dynamic cluster adaptation, considering topology changes that are likely to occur during long-term network operation and maintenance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue IEEE 802.11 and Wireless Sensors Network)
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17 pages, 604 KiB  
Article
Comparison between Different Channel Coding Techniques for IEEE 802.11be within Factory Automation Scenarios
by Lorenzo Fanari, Eneko Iradier, Iñigo Bilbao, Rufino Cabrera, Jon Montalban and Pablo Angueira
Sensors 2021, 21(21), 7209; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21217209 - 29 Oct 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2846
Abstract
This paper presents improvements in the physical layer reliability of the IEEE 802.11be standard. Most wireless system proposals do not fulfill the stringent requirements of Factory Automation use cases. The harsh propagation features of industrial environments usually require time retransmission techniques to guarantee [...] Read more.
This paper presents improvements in the physical layer reliability of the IEEE 802.11be standard. Most wireless system proposals do not fulfill the stringent requirements of Factory Automation use cases. The harsh propagation features of industrial environments usually require time retransmission techniques to guarantee link reliability. At the same time, retransmissions compromise latency. IEEE 802.11be, the upcoming WLAN standard, is being considered for Factory Automation (FA) communications. 802.11be addresses specifically latency and reliability difficulties, typical in the previous 802.11 standards. This paper evaluates different channel coding techniques potentially applicable in IEEE 802.11be. The methods suggested here are the following: WLAN LDPC, WLAN Convolutional Codes (CC), New Radio (NR) Polar, and Long Term Evolution (LTE)-based Turbo Codes. The tests consider an IEEE 802.11be prototype under the Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channel and industrial channel models. The results suggest that the best performing codes in factory automation cases are the WLAN LDPCs and New Radio Polar Codes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue IEEE 802.11 and Wireless Sensors Network)
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23 pages, 1949 KiB  
Article
Multimodal Network Architecture for Shared Situational Awareness amongst Vessels
by Amina Seferagić, Jetmir Haxhibeqiri, Paolo Pilozzi and Jeroen Hoebeke
Sensors 2021, 21(19), 6556; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21196556 - 30 Sep 2021
Viewed by 1490
Abstract
To shift the paradigm towards Industry 4.0, maritime domain aims to utilize shared situational awareness (SSA) amongst vessels. SSA entails sharing various heterogeneous information, depending on the context and use case at hand, and no single wireless technology is equally suitable for all [...] Read more.
To shift the paradigm towards Industry 4.0, maritime domain aims to utilize shared situational awareness (SSA) amongst vessels. SSA entails sharing various heterogeneous information, depending on the context and use case at hand, and no single wireless technology is equally suitable for all uses. Moreover, different vessels are equipped with different hardware and have different communication capabilities, as well as communication needs. To enable SSA regardless of the vessel’s communication capabilities and context, we propose a multimodal network architecture that utilizes all of the network interfaces on a vessel, including multiple IEEE 802.11 interfaces, and automatically bootstraps the communication transparently to the applications, making the entire communication system environment-aware, service-driven, and technology-agnostic. This paper presents the design, implementation, and evaluation of the proposed network architecture which introduces virtually no additional delays as compared to the Linux communication stack, automates communication bootstrapping, and uses a novel application-network integration concept that enables application-aware networks, as well as network-aware applications. The evaluation was conducted for several IEEE 802.11 flavors. Although inspired by SSA for vessels, the proposed architecture incorporates several concepts applicable in other domains. It is modular enough to support existing, as well as emerging communication technologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue IEEE 802.11 and Wireless Sensors Network)
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22 pages, 1438 KiB  
Article
OFDMA Backoff Control Scheme for Improving Channel Efficiency in the Dynamic Network Environment of IEEE 802.11ax WLANs
by Youngboo Kim, Lam Kwon and Eun-Chan Park
Sensors 2021, 21(15), 5111; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21155111 - 28 Jul 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2913
Abstract
IEEE 802.11ax uplink orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA)-based random access (UORA) is a new feature for random channel access in wireless local area networks (WLANs). Similar to the legacy random access scheme in WLANs, UORA performs the OFDMA backoff (OBO) procedure to [...] Read more.
IEEE 802.11ax uplink orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA)-based random access (UORA) is a new feature for random channel access in wireless local area networks (WLANs). Similar to the legacy random access scheme in WLANs, UORA performs the OFDMA backoff (OBO) procedure to access the channel and decides on a random OBO counter within the OFDMA contention window (OCW) value. An access point (AP) can determine the OCW range and inform each station (STA) of it. However, how to determine a reasonable OCW range is beyond the scope of the IEEE 802.11ax standard. The OCW range is crucial to the UORA performance, and it primarily depends on the number of contending STAs, but it is challenging for the AP to accurately and quickly estimate or keep track of the number of contending STAs without the aid of a specific signaling mechanism. In addition, the one for this purpose incurs an additional delay and overhead in the channel access procedure. Therefore, the performance of a UORA scheme can be degraded by an improper OCW range, especially when the number of contending STAs changes dynamically. We first observed the effect of OCW values on channel efficiency and derived its optimal value from an analytical model. Next, we proposed a simple yet effective OBO control scheme where each STA determines its own OBO counter in a distributed manner rather than adjusting the OCW value globally. In the proposed scheme, each STA determines an appropriate OBO counter depending on whether the previous transmission was successful or not so that collisions can be mitigated without leaving OFDMA resource units unnecessarily idle. The results of a simulation study confirm that the throughput of the proposed scheme is comparable to the optimal OCW-based scheme and is improved by up to 15 times compared to the standard UORA scheme. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue IEEE 802.11 and Wireless Sensors Network)
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20 pages, 1236 KiB  
Article
Time-Sensitive Networking in IEEE 802.11be: On the Way to Low-Latency WiFi 7
by Toni Adame, Marc Carrascosa-Zamacois and Boris Bellalta
Sensors 2021, 21(15), 4954; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21154954 - 21 Jul 2021
Cited by 49 | Viewed by 10034
Abstract
A short time after the official launch of WiFi 6, IEEE 802.11 working groups along with the WiFi Alliance are already designing its successor in the wireless local area network (WLAN) ecosystem: WiFi 7. With the IEEE 802.11be amendment as one of its [...] Read more.
A short time after the official launch of WiFi 6, IEEE 802.11 working groups along with the WiFi Alliance are already designing its successor in the wireless local area network (WLAN) ecosystem: WiFi 7. With the IEEE 802.11be amendment as one of its main constituent parts, future WiFi 7 aims to include time-sensitive networking (TSN) capabilities to support low latency and ultra-reliability in license-exempt spectrum bands, enabling many new Internet of Things scenarios. This article first introduces the key features of IEEE 802.11be, which are then used as the basis to discuss how TSN functionalities could be implemented in WiFi 7. Finally, the benefits and requirements of the most representative Internet of Things low-latency use cases for WiFi 7 are reviewed: multimedia, healthcare, industrial, and transport. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue IEEE 802.11 and Wireless Sensors Network)
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20 pages, 3848 KiB  
Article
AFOROS: A Low-Cost Wi-Fi-Based Monitoring System for Estimating Occupancy of Public Spaces
by Mario Vega-Barbas, Manuel Álvarez-Campana, Diego Rivera, Mario Sanz and Julio Berrocal
Sensors 2021, 21(11), 3863; https://doi.org/10.3390/s21113863 - 03 Jun 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3840
Abstract
Estimating the number of people present in a given venue in real-time is extremely useful from a security, management, and resource optimization perspective. This article presents the architecture of a system based on the use of Wi-Fi sensor devices that allows estimating, almost [...] Read more.
Estimating the number of people present in a given venue in real-time is extremely useful from a security, management, and resource optimization perspective. This article presents the architecture of a system based on the use of Wi-Fi sensor devices that allows estimating, almost in real-time, the number of people attending an event that is taking place in a venue. The estimate is based on the analysis of the “probe request” messages periodically transmitted by smartphones to determine the existence of Wi-Fi access points in the vicinity. The method considers the MAC address randomization mechanisms introduced in recent years in smartphones, which prevents the estimation of the number of devices by simply counting different MAC addresses. To solve this difficulty, our Wi-Fi sensors analyze other fields present in the header of the IEEE 802.11 frames, the information elements, to extract a unique fingerprint from each smartphone. The designed system was tested in a set of real scenarios, obtaining an estimate of attendance at different public events with an accuracy close to 95%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue IEEE 802.11 and Wireless Sensors Network)
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