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Advanced Flexible Electronics for Sensing Application

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A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220). This special issue belongs to the section "Nanosensors".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 May 2026) | Viewed by 14078

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Special Issue Editor

Dr. Xinkai Xie

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Guest Editor

School of Electronic Science & Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
Interests: flexible electronics; self-powered sensing; in-memory sensor; multimodal sensing and decoupling

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue focuses on the latest advances in flexible electronics and their promising applications in various sensing technologies. Flexible electronics, based on functional materials like polymers, hydrogels, and 2D, carbon, and nanomaterials, can be fabricated into fibers or thin films, which enable new capabilities beyond those of traditional rigid electronics.

The papers included in this SI cover frontier research on flexible materials (e.g., sensor materials, flexible substrates, conductive electrodes, etc.), devices, fabrication methods, and system integration strategies for sensing applications. The key topics span flexible sensors for monitoring physical parameters (light, temperature, strain, pressure, etc.), chemical/biomedical sensing, self-powered sensing, in-memory sensor computing, and multimodal sensing for human-machine interfaces. Prominent examples are wearable sensors for imagers, neuromorphic electronics, healthcare, robotics, Internet of Things, and smart environments.

The inherent flexibility, light weight, conformability, and potential for low-cost manufacturing make flexible electronics extremely attractive for next-generation sensing solutions. However, scientific and engineering challenges remain in improving their performance, reliability, scalability, and integration levels. This Issue aims to capture the state-of-the-art in this rapidly evolving interdisciplinary field and identify future research directions.

The contributed works provide a comprehensive overview, ranging from fundamental innovations in flexible materials and devices to system-level implementations across diverse sensing applications, offering valuable insights for researchers in advanced flexible integrated devices and systems.

Dr. Xinkai Xie
Guest Editor

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Keywords

flexible electronics
wearable sensors
self-powered optoelectronics
multimodal sensors
neuromorphic sensors
e-textiles

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

23 pages, 5494 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Hybrid-Frequency Sampling Tactile Sensing System Based on a Flexible Piezoresistive Sensor Array: Design and Dynamic Loading Validation

by Zhenxing Wang and Xuan Dou

Sensors 2026, 26(5), 1559; https://doi.org/10.3390/s26051559 - 2 Mar 2026

Viewed by 654

Abstract

A Hybrid-Frequency Sampling Tactile Sensing System Based on a Flexible Piezoresistive Sensor Array is presented for reliable and real-time tactile perception under dynamic loading conditions. While recent studies have developed multi-channel tactile arrays, most systems remain limited by time-dependent drift in channel responses, inconsistent dynamic behavior, or insufficient temporal resolution under simultaneous loading. In this work, a system-level design integrating a flexible piezoresistive sensor array with a real-time data acquisition module is developed, incorporating a hybrid-frequency sampling strategy to reduce system complexity while preserving reliable dynamic response in key sensing channels. Register-Transfer Level (RTL) simulation verified that the hardware scheduler rigorously executed the deterministic scanning logic, demonstrating a strict one-to-one correspondence with the physical hardware signals. The array consists of 34 piezoresistive sensing nodes embedded in an elastomeric substrate. Under the implemented hybrid-frequency sampling scheme, the system achieves an overall effective acquisition bandwidth of approximately 36.9 kHz, while maintaining a repeatability better than 4.9% and robust mechanical durability under cyclic bending deformation. Dynamic loading validation was performed using a self-developed pressure comparison platform for measuring the normal contact force applied on the tactile surface, serving as ground-truth data to verify that the voltages acquired by the proposed system accurately correspond to the actual applied force. Quantitative analysis shows a strong linear correlation (R² ≈ 0.98) between the e-skin outputs and the reference forces. The recorded responses exhibit clear intensity-dependent trends and good temporal correspondence among sensing nodes, successfully distinguishing tactile stimuli such as gentle tapping, moderate pressing, and firm contact. The system also captures dynamic tactile responses during finger stroking, showing characteristic multi-unit activation patterns under spatiotemporally varying contact conditions. Compared with previously reported tactile systems typically operating below 100 Hz, the proposed design achieves an approximately 10× enhancement in effective sampling capability while significantly reducing system complexity through hybrid-frequency sampling, thereby supporting reliable dynamic tactile sensing in multi-unit arrays. These results demonstrate that the proposed system provides a practical and scalable hardware platform for dynamic tactile sensing in robotics, human–machine interaction, and wearable tactile systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Flexible Electronics for Sensing Application)

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14 pages, 5202 KB

Open AccessArticle

Flexible Electrospun PVDF/PAN/Graphene Nanofiber Piezoelectric Sensors for Passive Human Motion Monitoring

by Hasan Cirik, Yasemin Gündoğdu Kabakci, M. A. Basyooni-M. Kabatas and Hamdi Şükür Kiliç

Sensors 2026, 26(2), 391; https://doi.org/10.3390/s26020391 - 7 Jan 2026

Viewed by 1178

Abstract

Flexible piezoelectric sensors based on electrospun poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF)/polyacrylonitrile (PAN)/graphene nanofibers were fabricated and evaluated for passive human body motion detection. Optimized electrospinning yielded smooth, continuous fibers with diameters of 200–250 nm and uniform films with thicknesses of 20–25 µm. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy confirmed a high fraction of the piezoelectrically active β-phase in PVDF, which was further enhanced by post-deposition thermal treatment. Graphene and lithium phosphate were incorporated to improve electrical conductivity, β-phase nucleation, and piezoelectric response, while PAN provided mechanical reinforcement and flexibility. Custom test platforms were developed to simulate low-amplitude mechanical stimuli, including finger bending and pulsatile pressure. Under applied pressures of 40, 80, and 120 mmHg, the sensors generated stable millivolt-level outputs with average peak voltages of 25–30 mV, 53–60 mV, and 80–90 mV, respectively, with good repeatability and an adequate signal-to-noise ratio. These results demonstrate that PVDF/PAN/graphene nanofiber films are promising candidates for flexible, wearable piezoelectric sensors capable of detecting subtle physiological signals, and highlight the critical roles of electrospinning conditions, functional additives, and post-processing treatments in tuning their electromechanical performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Flexible Electronics for Sensing Application)

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19 pages, 3437 KB

Open AccessArticle

Use of Carbon Nanotubes for the Functionalization of Concrete for Sensing Applications

by Xiaohui Jia, Anna Lushnikova and Olivier Plé

Sensors 2025, 25(12), 3755; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25123755 - 16 Jun 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2162

Abstract

This study advances the development of self-sensing concrete through functionalization with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) for structural health monitoring. Through experimental analyses, it relies on its dual responsiveness to mechanical and thermal stimuli. Three-point bending and thermal tests were systematically conducted on concrete samples with CNT concentrations ranging from 0 to 0.05 wt.% of cement, evaluated at 7- and 28-day curing periods. Mechanical testing demonstrated curing-dependent behavior: At 7 days, mechanical strength and electrical current response exhibited pronounced variability across CNTs loadings, with optimal balance achieved at 0.01% CNTs. At 28 days, the tests show that the mechanical properties are relatively stabilized, reaching the highest value at 0.006 wt.% CNTs and achieving the best electrical sensitivity at 0.01 wt.% CNTs. The thermal experiments revealed faster current modulation in the 7-day samples than in the 28-day counterparts, with intermediate CNT concentrations (e.g., 0.01 wt.%) showing a more sensitive response. The sensitivity was analyzed for both mechanical and thermal changes to further evaluate the feasibility of using CNT-reinforced concrete as a sensor material. Conductivity measurements on fully cured samples indicated that all samples exhibited electrical conductivities in the 10⁻⁴ S/m range, suggesting semiconductive behavior, while 0.006 wt.% CNTs yielded the highest conductivity. Higher CNT content did not further improve conductivity, likely due to agglomeration disrupting the network. These findings confirm CNT-modified concrete’s dual electromechanical and thermal responsiveness and support its potential as a multifunctional sensing material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Flexible Electronics for Sensing Application)

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16 pages, 7015 KB

Open AccessArticle

Laterally Excited Bulk Acoustic Wave Resonators with Rotated Electrodes Using X-Cut LiNbO₃ Thin-Film Substrates

by Jieyu Liu, Wenjuan Liu, Zhiwei Wen, Min Zeng, Yao Cai and Chengliang Sun

Sensors 2025, 25(6), 1740; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25061740 - 11 Mar 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2724

Abstract

With the development of piezoelectric-on-insulator (POI) substrates, X-cut LiNbO₃ thin-film resonators with interdigital transducers are widely investigated due to their adjustable resonant frequency (f_s) and effective electromechanical coupling coefficient (

K_{e f f}^{2}

). This paper presents [...] Read more.

K_{e f f}^{2}

). This paper presents an in-depth study of simulations and measurements of laterally excited bulk acoustic wave resonators based on an X-cut LiNbO₃/SiO₂/Si substrate and a LiNbO₃ thin film to analyze the effects of electrode angle rotation (

θ

) on the modes, f_s, and

K_{e f f}^{2}

. The rotated

θ

leads to different electric field directions, causing mode changes, where the resonators without cavities are longitudinal leaky SAWs (LLSAWs,

θ

= 0

°

) and zero-order shear horizontal SAWs (SH₀-SAWs,

θ

= 90

°

) and the resonators with cavities are zero-order-symmetry (S₀) lateral vibrating resonators (LVRs,

θ

= 0

°

) and SH₀ plate wave resonators (PAW,

θ

= 90

°

). The resonators are fabricated based on a 400 nm X-cut LiNbO₃ thin-film substrate, and the measured results are consistent with those from the simulation. The fabricated LLSAW and SH₀-SAW without cavities show a

K_{e f f}^{2}

of 1.62% and 26.6% and a Bode-Q_max of 1309 and 228, respectively. Meanwhile, an S₀ LVR and an SH₀-PAW with cavities present a

K_{e f f}^{2}

of 4.82% and 27.66% and a Bode-Q_max of 3289 and 289, respectively. In addition, the TCF with a different rotated

θ

is also measured and analyzed. This paper systematically analyzes resonators on X-cut LiNbO₃ thin-film substrates and provides potential strategies for multi-band and multi-bandwidth filters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Flexible Electronics for Sensing Application)

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13 pages, 5136 KB

Open AccessArticle

Flexible Piezoresistive Film Pressure Sensor Based on Double-Sided Microstructure Sensing Layer

by Rong Sun, Peng Xiao, Lei Sun, Dongliang Guo and Ye Wang

Sensors 2024, 24(24), 8114; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24248114 - 19 Dec 2024

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3449

Abstract

Flexible thin-film pressure sensors have garnered significant attention due to their applications in industrial inspection and human–computer interactions. However, due to their ultra-thin structure, these sensors often exhibit lower performance, including a narrow pressure response range and low sensitivity, which constrains their further application. The most commonly used microstructure fabrication methods are challenging to apply to ultra-thin functional layers and may compromise the structural stability of the sensors. In this study, we present a novel design of a film pressure sensor with a double-sided microstructure sensing layer by adopting the template method. By incorporating the double-sided microstructures, the proposed thin-film pressure sensor can simultaneously achieve a high sensitivity value of 5.5 kPa⁻¹ and a wide range of 140 kPa, while maintaining a short response time of 120 ms and a low detection limit. This flexible film pressure sensor demonstrates considerable potential for distributed pressure sensing and industrial pressure monitoring applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Flexible Electronics for Sensing Application)

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23 pages, 5832 KB

Open AccessArticle

Usage of Machine Learning Techniques to Classify and Predict the Performance of Force Sensing Resistors

by Angela Peña, Edwin L. Alvarez, Diana M. Ayala Valderrama, Carlos Palacio, Yosmely Bermudez and Leonel Paredes-Madrid

Sensors 2024, 24(20), 6592; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24206592 - 13 Oct 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3117

Abstract

Recently, there has been a huge increase in the different ways to manufacture polymer-based sensors. Methods like additive manufacturing, microfluidic preparation, and brush painting are just a few examples of new approaches designed to improve sensor features like self-healing, higher sensitivity, reduced drift over time, and lower hysteresis. That being said, we believe there is still a lot of potential to boost the performance of current sensors by applying modeling, classification, and machine learning techniques. With this approach, final sensor users may benefit from inexpensive computational methods instead of dealing with the already mentioned manufacturing routes. In this study, a total of 96 specimens of two commercial brands of Force Sensing Resistors (FSRs) were characterized under the error metrics of drift and hysteresis; the characterization was performed at multiple input voltages in a tailored test bench. It was found that the output voltage at null force (V_{o_null}) of a given specimen is inversely correlated with its drift error, and, consequently, it is possible to predict the sensor’s performance by performing inexpensive electrical measurements on the sensor before deploying it to the final application. Hysteresis error was also studied in regard to V_{o_null} readings; nonetheless, a relationship between V_{o_null} and hysteresis was not found. However, a classification rule base on k-means clustering method was implemented; the clustering allowed us to distinguish in advance between sensors with high and low hysteresis by relying solely on V_{o_null} readings; the method was successfully implemented on Peratech SP200 sensors, but it could be applied to Interlink FSR402 sensors. With the aim of providing a comprehensive insight of the experimental data, the theoretical foundations of FSRs are also presented and correlated with the introduced modeling/classification techniques. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Flexible Electronics for Sensing Application)

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