The Diverse Health Preservation Literature and Ideas in the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu

Abstract

The Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu 三元參贊延壽書, compiled by Li Pengfei during the Yuan dynasty, is a comprehensive collection of the essence of earlier health preservation literature. Recently, the Jianwen first-year (1399) re-engraved edition by Liu Yuanran 劉淵然 (1351–1432) has emerged, which is currently housed in the Imperial Household Agency Library in Japan. It has challenged the prevailing consensus in China that the edition (1445) in the Daozang 道藏 is the earliest version. This discovery not only enriches our understanding of the text’s historical dissemination but also highlights the international appreciation and preservation of Chinese traditional medical and health knowledge. Upon meticulous examination, the various editions of this text can be systematically classified into two distinct lineages: Yanshou Canzan 延壽參贊 and Canzan Yanshou 參贊延壽. The latter lineage is notably more comprehensive, with the Wanli 萬曆 edition serving as a prime exemplar of this expanded scope. Li Pengfei primarily drew upon the Yangsheng Leizuan 養生類纂 as the foundational text for his work, skillfully integrating a wealth of Daoism and medical scriptures. He adeptly restructured the content by employing the conceptual framework of three primes (sanyuan 三元), incorporating the health preservation philosophies of Confucianism and Buddhism, thereby transforming it into a more systematic and diverse Daoism scripture dedicated to health preservation. The book eloquently advocates for health-preserving philosophies centered around the principle of not diminishing (busun 不損) primordial pneuma (yuanqi 元氣), extending life through three primes, and prolonging life through the virtue of yin (yinde 陰德). These ideas emphasize a human-centered approach, focusing on preserving the primordial pneuma as the foundation and employing both loss prevention and supplementation as dual pathways. It aims to achieve a state of health preservation where there is unity of man with heaven (tianren heyi 天人合一) and a harmonious balance of yin and yang energies (yinyang qihe 陰陽氣和).

1. Introduction

Li Pengfei, known by the sobriquet Chengxin Laoren 澄心老人, flourished during the Yuan dynasty, with precise birth and death dates remaining elusive. A native of Chizhou, located in present-day Qingyang, Anhui Province, Li Pengfei garnered renown for his exceptional prowess in the field of medicine. Notably, he authored the esteemed medical book Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu, which stands as a testament to his scholarly contributions and enduring legacy within the realm of traditional medicine.1 This treatise, a distinguished contribution to medical literature, intricately explores the synchronization of the three primes2. The concept is a cornerstone concept in the theory of traditional medicine aimed at enhancing health and prolonging life. Historical records have mentioned the book several times, although the title is reported differently. During the Hongzhi period of the Ming dynasty, Gao Ru 高儒 (?–?) said that “Li Pengfei authored the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu, which spanned five volumes” (李鵬飛，《三元參贊延壽書》五卷; Gao 1957, p. 153). Additionally, Ji Zhenyi 季振宜 (1630–?) of the Qing dynasty stated that “The Sanyuan Yanshou Canzan Shu in five volumes, compiled by Li Pengfei, the Chengxin Laoren from Jiuhua, during the Yuan dynasty. It compiled the essence, strategies and dietary prescriptions, and prohibitions from various books, categorized into forty-one types” (《三元延壽參贊書》五卷，元九華澄心老人李鵬飛，編集諸書所載精氣，謀為，飲食宜忌之說錄之，凡四十一類; Ji 1985, p. 65). Qian Daxin 錢大昕 (1728–1804) of the Qing dynasty also said that “The Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu comprised five volumes” (《三元參贊延壽書》五卷; Qian 1985, p. 34).

The Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu is a Daoist treatise dedicated to health preservation, with editions housed in major libraries worldwide, drawing attention from international scholars.3 Current scholarly attention to the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu predominantly focuses on its philosophical aspects, while research into its documentary and textual dimensions remains to be further developed.4 Moreover, contemporary investigations into the philosophical underpinnings of traditional medicine have often concentrated on specific modalities such as dietary therapy, sexual wellness, and moral cultivation. These discussions, while integral to understanding the practical applications of ancient wisdom, frequently do not penetrate deeply into the core principles and theoretical frameworks that govern concepts of health preservation in this holistic medical tradition. Therefore, the paper employs historical documentary methods and digital humanities approaches to authenticate the literary sources of the book, utilize intellectual history methods to explore its health preservation principles, and employ textual criticism methods to analyze its transmission and influence. Based on this framework, the subsequent analysis unfolds from three aspects: the literary sources, the main philosophical themes, and the dissemination of editions of the book.

2. Diverse Literature Sources

The Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu, authored by Li Pengfei, presents a notable quandary for scholars engaged in textual research due to its frequent use of excerpts from various ancient texts without explicit citations. Nonetheless, the relationship between this work and another significant medical text, the Yangsheng Leizuan, provides essential insights that aid in navigating these complexities. By examining passages that appear in both texts, researchers can infer the nature of the source materials that influenced the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu and assess their contribution to the corpus of traditional medical knowledge. Such analysis not only sheds light on the specific content and organizational methods employed by Li Pengfei but also illuminates broader trends in medical scholarship during the Yuan dynasty.

2.1. The Cited Documents of the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu

This study employs digital humanities methodologies, utilizing databases to conduct a comprehensive search and comparison of all cited references within the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu. By integrating digital methodologies, researchers can delve deeper into the textual composition and literary value of this historical medical treatise, offering a new dimension of understanding and appreciation for its contributions to traditional medicine.

Firstly, Li Pengfei organized and reconstructed the literature from the Yangsheng Leizuan, distributing it across various volumes of the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu. Upon examination, Li cited 65 different documents from the Yangsheng Leizuan, with a total of 407 citation entries. The specifics are detailed in the table below:

From the

Table 1. Statistical analysis of citations from Yangsheng Leizuan in each volume of Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu5.

Number of Citations	Volume Head	Volume One	Volume Two	Volume Three	Volume Four	Total
Divided by Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu	5	76	226	318	26	651
Further Refined According to Yangsheng Leizuan	5	76	244	457	26	808
Excerpted from Yangsheng Leizuan	1	17	110	278	1	407

, among the five volumes of the book, Volume two has a total of 244 articles, of which 110 articles are quoted from Yangsheng Leizuan; Volume three has a total of 457 articles, and 278 articles are quoted from Yangsheng Leizuan. It was evident that Li Pengfei primarily amalgamated the excerpted documents in Volumes two and three of the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu. These two volumes constitute the main content of the book, half of which are from Yangsheng Leizuan. Besides, in terms of the distribution of documents, each volume of the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu includes documents from the Yangsheng Leizuan, with their quantity accounting for about half of the total. This further substantiates that the Yangsheng Leizuan served as the primary textual source for the book.

Furthermore, in addition to the Yangsheng Leizuan, Li Pengfei also excerpted from other works that possess unique scholarly value. When compiling, Li Pengfei directly indicated multifarious Daoism literature, such as Laozi 老子, Zhuangzi 莊子, Huainanzi 淮南子, Huangting Jing 黃庭經, Yinfu Jing 陰符經, Baopuzi 抱樸子, Jindan Jue 金丹訣, Siqi Tiaoshen Lun 四氣調神論, Tianyinzi 天隱子, Dongshen Zhenjing 洞神真經, Xishan Qunxian Huizhen Ji 西山群仙會真記, Xuanshu 玄樞, and others. Additionally, through database retrieval and verification, 270 citations were identified, involving nearly a hundred works, as shown in the figure below. It is worth noting that, from the following Figure 1, Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu quotes more than 400 documents in the category of Yangsheng Leizuan, which becomes the main source of documents for the book.

Based on the current level of digitization of ancient texts, the figure above presents the possible sources of literature for the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu. Among these works, there is a myriad of Daoist health preservation literature that is quite special, namely those that serve as the sole source for the text of Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu and are cited multiple times. Therefore, they can be temporarily designated as the citation sources for the book. These documents include: Zhenglei Bencao 證類本草, Qianjin Yaofang, Yishuo 醫說, Xiuzhen Shishu 修真十書, Yunji Qiqian, Taishang Ganying Pian 太上感應篇, Daoshu 道樞, Sanyin Jiyi Bingzheng Fanglun 三因極一病證方論, Daoyuan Jiyao 道院集要, Taishang Laojun Shuo Changqingjing Jingzhu 太上老君說常清靜經注, Changsheng Quanjing 長生詮經.

Apart from the documents cited from the Yangsheng Leizuan, the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu includes a diverse range of other texts. This diversity enriches the work, integrating medical knowledge with insights from various other sources, which could include additional classical Chinese medicine texts, philosophical works, and possibly even historical compendiums. This eclectic collection allows for a broader understanding of health and longevity practices, reflecting a multifaceted approach to traditional Chinese life sciences, such as Laozi, Zhuangzi, Yinfu Jing, Jindan Jue, Siqi Tiaoshen Lun, Dongshen Zhenjing, Xuanshu, Xiuzhen Shishu, Daoshu, Daoyuan Jiyao, Taishang Laojun Shuo Changqingjing Jingzhu, Zhenglei Bencao, and Yishuo.

Furthermore, Li Pengfei added mostly Daoist and medical classics. This section of literature includes sources of early Daoist thought, such as Laozi, Zhuangzi, and Yinfu Jing, as well as later Daoist theoretical creations like Daoshu and Xiuzhen Shishu. Regarding the medical texts, the Zhenglei Bencao stands as one of the most renowned and academically valuable pharmacopeias from the Song dynasty, developed from the foundational Shennong Bencao Jing 神農本草經. The significance of Qianjin Yaofang and Huangdi Neijing 黃帝內經 in the field of traditional medicine is indisputably profound. Li Pengfei’s selection of health preservation literature aligns well with the Daoist medicine phase in traditional medicine, integrating philosophical and practical aspects of health maintenance and healing practices. This approach reflects a deep appreciation for the intertwined nature of Daoist principles and medical knowledge, emphasizing the holistic approach characteristic of traditional Chinese health practices. “The Daoist medicine stage is characterized by the Huangdi Neijing and the Shennong Bencao Jing as landmarks, with figures such as Huangdi 黃帝 (?–?), Qibo 岐伯 (?–?), Bianque 扁鵲 (約前407–約前310), Chunyu Yi 淳於意 (前215–約前140), Ge Hong 葛洪 (283–343), Tao Hongjing 陶弘景 (456–536), and Sun Simiao 孫思邈 (541–682) as representatives” (Cheng 2010, pp. 218–19). As Ge Jianmin 蓋建民 has stated, “From its inception, Daoism has emphasized and utilized the means of medical transmission for Dao” (Ge 2001, p. 7).

2.2. The Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu and the Yangsheng Leizuan

The Yangsheng Leizuan, compiled by Zhou Shouzhong during the Song dynasty, manifests a vital text in the annals of traditional medical literature, with its editions varying notably in volume and content. The extant versions include a more concise two-volume edition and an extensive twenty-two volume edition, with the latter being the most comprehensive. “Notably, the earliest surviving version that informs our understanding of Zhou’s work is the Ming dynasty’s Yangsheng Leizuan. This version is particularly significant as it serves as the progenitor from which all subsequent editions, especially the detailed twenty-two volume edition, are derived” (Qiu 2022, p. 75). This academic discourse explores the intricate textual relationship and thematic correspondence between the twenty-two volume edition of the Yangsheng Leizuan and the Wanli edition of the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu, compiled by Li Pengfei during the Yuan dynasty.

2.2.1. Chapters and Entries

The structural alignment between the first three volumes of the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu and the Yangsheng Leizuan offers a fascinating glimpse into the methodical organization and thematic parallels that define these seminal works of traditional medicine. This alignment not only underscores the shared intellectual heritage and methodological approaches in these texts but also reveals how traditional medical knowledge was categorized and transmitted across different periods within Chinese history.

Firstly, the organizational structure of the initial three volumes of the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu mirrors that found in the Yangsheng Leizuan, particularly reflecting a direct correspondence in thematic divisions. Specifically, the first volume of the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu aligns with parts two, three, four, and five of the Human Affairs section in Yangsheng Leizuan. The second volume corresponds to the first and second parts of the same section, encapsulating core aspects of human-centered health practices. The third volume covers a diverse array of topics related to dietary considerations, comprising sections on Food and Beverages, Feathers and Fowls, Furred Animals, Scaly and Shellfish, Grains and Cereals, Fruits, Vegetables, and Plants. This systematic arrangement facilitates a comprehensive exploration of health-preserving methods across a spectrum of daily human activities and dietary habits, emphasizing a holistic approach to vitality and well-being.

Secondly, a detailed examination reveals that the classification methods in both texts are fundamentally similar. Volume two of the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu corresponds to the Human Affairs section of the Yangsheng Leizuan. The two books encompass common entries, such as spitting, sweating, sneezing, walking, standing, sitting, rising early, getting up at night, worrying, crying, shouting in anger, laughing with joy, speaking, pondering, sleeping, dreaming, nightmares, bathing, washing the face, and combing hair. Volume three of the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu is meticulously organized into categories that encompass a broad range of dietary elements essential for health preservation. This volume includes sections on fruits, cereals, vegetables, flying creatures, terrestrial animals, fishes, and insects, reflecting a comprehensive examination of natural dietary resources. This categorization corresponds closely with the segments found in the Yangsheng Leizuan specifically those detailing fruits, cereals, vegetables, furred animals, and scaly creatures. Such structural similarities not only facilitate a comparative study of the texts but also highlight the continuity and evolution of medical knowledge over the centuries. They reflect an enduring tradition of empirical and theoretical medical practice aimed at enhancing health and longevity, a testament to the sophistication and complexity of medical scholarship during the Song, Yuan, and subsequent dynasties.

2.2.2. Specific Content

The Yangsheng Leizuan is the primary textual source for the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu. The following discussion will focus on three sections: daily routines, movement and posture, and fruits.

First, in the Daily Routines section, the textual content of both books is very similar, and the arrangement order is also essentially the same. The Sanyuan Canshan Yanshou Shu states:

A: It is advisable to refrain from brushing teeth immediately upon waking, as this practice has been associated with potential dental instability, including the mobilization and loosening of tooth roots, which may culminate in toothache. Historically, the composition of toothbrush bristles, often made from horsehair, was implicated in the deterioration of dental health. The abrasive nature of horsehair bristles was believed to corrode the roots of the teeth, facilitating decay, which can be seen in residues of horsehair bristles found in extracted teeth.

早起不可用刷牙子，恐根浮兼牙疏，易損極，久之患牙疼。蓋刷牙子皆是馬尾為之，極有所損。今時出牙者，盡有馬尾灰，蓋馬尾能腐齒根。

(Li and Huang 2021, p. 82)

B: Upon waking, one should sit facing east and rub their hands together until they feel warm. Then, use the hands to rub from the forehead up to the crown of the head, completing twenty-nine full strokes. This practice is properly called preserving the Mud Ball.6

早起向東坐，以兩手相摩令熱，以手摩額上至頂上，滿二九，正名曰存泥丸。

(Li and Huang 2021, p. 82)

C: At dawn, a traditional health practice begins with individuals massaging their ears fourteen times in an up-and-down motion. Subsequently, they pinch their nostrils closed, hold their breath, and with the right hand, pull the left ear from above, repeating this action fourteen times. This is followed by lifting the hair at the temples upward with both hands, which is said to enhance blood and energy circulation and prevent the graying of hair. The final step in this morning ritual is the dry bath, which involves rubbing the hands together until they become warm and then massaging the body up and down. This practice is reputed to alleviate a variety of health issues, including colds, seasonal disorders, fevers, and headaches.

清旦初起，以兩手叉兩耳，極上下之，二七止，令人不聾。次縮鼻閉氣，右手從頭上引左耳，二七止。次引兩發鬢，舉之，令人血氣流通，頭不白。又摩手令熱，以摩身體，從上至下，名幹浴，令人勝風寒，時氣，寒熱，頭疼，百病皆除之。

(Li and Huang 2021, p. 82)

D: When a person rises at dawn, they should always speak of good things, as heaven will then grant them blessings.

凡人旦起，常言善事，天與之福。

(Li and Huang 2021, p. 82)

According to the sources marked in Yangsheng Leizuan, these four items are derived from different ancient texts. Specifically, item A comes from the Suosui Lu 瑣碎錄, items B and C come from the Taiping Yulan 太平禦覽, and item D comes from the Yunji Qiqian 雲笈七籤. Therefore, this section of the Wanli edition of The Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu was directly excerpted from the Yangsheng Leizuan.

Secondly, in the Movement and Posture section, both books share common texts. These books state:

Walking should not cause one to lose energy. Also, when walking or riding a horse, one should not look back, as this causes the spirit to leave. Whenever one intends to move about, always imagine the kuigang7 above your head for good fortune in all directions. Speaking little while walking, which can prevent the dissipation of one’s spirit and the depletion of energy. Frequently grinding one’s teeth during nighttime walks, without a set number of times, can ward off malevolent spirits and prevent them from afflicting a person. For those fearful in their hearts during night walks or in profound sleep, envision the sun and the moon returning to the Mingtang, so all evil will extinguish itself within a moment, especially good for those living in the mountains. When returning home at night, writing the characters “I’m a ghost” on the palm of your hand with your middle finger of either the left or right hand, then clasping it tightly to dispel fear.

行不得令人失氣。又，行及乘馬，不用回顧，則神去。凡欲行來，常存魁罡在頭上，所向皆吉。行不多言，恐神散而損氣。夜行常琢齒，琢齒亦無限數也，煞鬼邪。鬼邪畏琢齒聲，是故不敢犯人。夜行及冥臥，心中恐者，存日月還入於明堂中，須臾百邪自滅，山居恒爾此為佳。夜歸，左手或右手，以中指書手心，作“我是鬼”三字，再握固，則不恐懼。

(Li and Huang 2021, pp. 85–86; Zhou et al. 2018, p. 42)

This passage contains seven sentences, all of which are found in Volume six, Human Affairs Section One, under Movemen and Posture in the Yangsheng Leizuan. The first three sentences are from Qianjin Yaofang千金要方, while the latter four are respectively from Xishan Ji 西山記, Zhen’gao 真誥, Xishan Ji, and Suosui Lu. Both books are consistent not only in their specific content but also in their arrangement and sequence.

Finally, in the aspect of fruits, both books also share similarities. In volume three of the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu, the Fruits section lists the dietary prohibitions associated with loquats, olives, torreya nuts, hazelnuts, lotus seeds, and Jitou 雞頭. The order and content are essentially the same as those in the Yangsheng Leizuan. Such cases are not rare in both books. More specifically, both books also record the different effects of the same fruit. The text states:

Semen euryales8 enhance vitality, spirit, and determination, and sharpens hearing and vision. Consumed regularly, it can lighten the body, reduce hunger, and increase resistance to aging. When prepared as a powder, it serves as an excellent food, esteemed as a medicine for longevity. Besides, if fed to children, it can prevent growth, thus stalling aging. Consumed raw, it can provoke rheumatic and cold conditions. Excessive consumption is not beneficial for the spleen and stomach, as it can also be difficult to digest.

雞頭，益精氣志，令耳目聰明。久服，輕身，不饑，耐老。作粉食極妙，是長生之藥。與小兒食，不能長大，故駐年耳。生食，動風冷氣，多食，不益脾胃氣，兼難消化。

(Li and Huang 2021, p. 162; Zhou et al. 2018, p. 168)

This passage in the Yangsheng Leizuan is divided into three parts: the first and second sentences are from Bencao 本草, the third and fourth sentences are from Shiliao Bencao 食療本草, and the fifth sentence is from Bencao Yanyi 本草衍義. The language and sequence of this content are the same in both books. Therefore, it is evident that the Fruits section of volume three was directly excerpted from the Yangsheng Leizuan.

Therefore, the text of the Wanli edition of Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu primarily derives from the Yangsheng Leizuan. Building on this foundation, Li Pengfei also extensively incorporated excerpts from various Daoist and medical classics.

In summary, the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu is a Daoist medical classic that draws primarily from the Yangsheng Leizuan. It has been reorganized around the concept of the three primes, enhancing its systematic nature and ideological depth. In terms of literature, as a Daoist health preservation classic, it draws from various Daoist, Confucian, and Buddhist sources, as well as excerpts from a variety of Daoist health preservation classics from pre-Qin to the Yuan Dynasty. This text represents a significant fusion of traditional medicine and Daoist spiritual insights, underscoring its unique place in the canon of historical medical literature.

3. Harmony as the Cornerstone of Health Preservation

The main philosophical theme of the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu revolves around three major concepts of health preservation: the preservation of primordial pneuma9, the extension of life through the three primes, and the prolonging of life through the virtue of Yin. These concepts emphasize the harmony of yin and yang, the unity of man and heaven, and the ideal state of spiritual nature and corporeal life (xingming 性命). All these principles are aimed at achieving harmony as the ultimate goal of health preservation. These concepts underscore a holistic and integrative perspective on health that is deeply rooted in Daoist philosophy, highlighting the importance of maintaining balance and alignment not only within the physical body but also within the environment and the broader cosmos.

3.1. The Principle of Not Diminishing Primordial Pneuma

The principle of not diminishing primordial pneuma emphasizes that the essence of health cultivation is to maintain the integrity of one’s primordial pneuma without causing harm and in a state of harmonious equilibrium. It advocates for preserving balance and avoiding damage through moderation, ultimately aiming to achieve harmony between yin and yang energies. This principle stresses the importance of careful and conservative management of one’s life force, avoiding extremes, and preventing the depletion of energy through excessive or harmful practices. By focusing on not diminishing as a fundamental approach, it seeks to ensure a sustainable and balanced energy flow that supports overall health and longevity.

Ge Hong proposed the concept of “nurturing life without harming” (養生以不傷為本; Ge 1988, p. 221) at an earlier stage. Tao Hongjing also stated: “The method of nurturing life lay in not harming it” (養生之法，但莫傷之; Tao 1988, p. 478). The Song dynasty’s Daoshu recorded: “Nurturing life was based on not diminishing. Not diminishing meanded not harming, which was the essence of nurturing life” (養生者以不損為本; Zeng 1988, p. 654). The Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu states: “Preserving health to extend life fundamentally relies on avoiding harm, with replenishment as a critical component. This approach is a preventative measure against gradual deterioration. Specifically, one should not commit minor wrongs just because they seem harmless, nor neglect minor virtues thinking they are inconsequential” (養生以不損為延年之術，不損以有補為衛生之經，處安慮危防未萌也，不以小惡為無害而不去，不以小善為無益而不為; Li and Huang 2021, p. 252). The principle of not diminishing is foundational to the extension of life, with the approach of supporting without harm being essential for health cultivation. This embodies a philosophy of proactive caution, where preventing potential problems is key. It emphasizes two paths: eliminating harm and enhancing benefits. At its core, the essence preserved in health maintenance is the primordial pneuma, which is considered the basis of health and the root of longevity.

The primordial pneuma is central to traditional medicine, representing the primal force that sustains life and governs physical vitality and resilience. Thus, maintaining and nurturing the primordial pneuma through practices that prevent depletion and promote replenishment is critical for achieving a long and healthy life. The text states: “the primordial pneuma is the moving energy between the kidneys, with the right kidney as the gate of life10, where the essence and spirit reside. Cherishing and preserving it, circulating it around the body, maintaining the spirit and energy, will lead to inexhaustible vitality, allowing one to live as long as heaven and earth” (元氣者，腎間動氣也，右腎為命門，精神之所舍，愛惜保重，榮衛周流，神氣不竭，可與天地同壽; Li and Huang 2021, p. 22). In other words, the primordial pneuma, as a critical factor in constituting and sustaining life, determines the length of life; its circulation affects the quality of life. The depletion of primordial pneuma is directly related to human desires. Excessive indulgence and the pursuit of personal desires can lead to the overuse and diminishment of this vital energy, adversely impacting health and longevity. Therefore, managing desires and maintaining a balanced lifestyle are essential for preserving the primordial pneuma and enhancing life quality, illustrating the deep interconnection between physical health and emotional and spiritual well-being in traditional Chinese health philosophy. “The primordial pneuma is limited, while human desires are limitless” (元氣有限，人欲無涯; Li and Huang 2021, p. 13). The finite nature of primordial pneuma implies the finiteness of life itself, and using this limited life to pursue boundless desires can only result in self-harm. Li Pengfei further concretizes the concept of primordial pneuma to emphasize its limitations, suggesting that the “original yang vital energy inherently weighs three hundred and eighty-four zhu” (元陽真氣，本重三百八十四銖; Li and Huang 2021, p. 232). This metaphorical quantification serves as a stark reminder of the need to conserve and wisely manage one’s vital energy, advocating for a lifestyle that prioritizes well-being over transient pleasures in the long term.

Not diminishing is a state of harmonizing yin and yang. When yin and yang are in harmony, primordial pneum is abundant. The text states: “One yin and one yang, this is called the Dao; excessive yin or excessive yang is called disease” (一陰一陽之謂道，偏陰偏陽之謂疾; Li and Huang 2021, p. 15). Yin and yang, the fundamental forces in traditional philosophy, are integral to the conception and sustenance of life. Yang, characterized by its transformative and active nature, manifests as the vital energy (qi氣) that animates individuals. Yin, in contrast, is associated with passivity and substance, forming the physical structure of the body. When these two forces are in equilibrium, they give rise to the human spirit, a harmonious blend of physical form and dynamic energy. Therefore, the essence of health preservation lies in maintaining the balance between yin and yang. The waxing and waning of yin and yang represent a dynamic and harmonious cosmic law. Imbalances, such as excessive or insufficient levels of yin or yang, or their failure to interact, disrupt this harmony and can harm life. The text states:

The dynamic interplay of yin and yang throughout the four seasons encapsulates a profound principle that underlies all existence, acting as a pivotal juncture between life and death. The wise approach is to nourish yang during the spring and summer, because these seasons characterized by growth, expansion, and warmth. Conversely, during the autumn and winter, when the world cools and contracts, it is prudent to nurture yin, supporting the body’s need for conservation and replenishment. To disregard this seasonal guidance by acting in opposition to these natural trends is to fundamentally undermine one’s health foundation and damage one’s essential vitality.

夫四時陰陽者，萬物之根本也。所以聖人春夏養陽，秋冬養陰，與萬物浮游於生長之門。逆其根則伐其本，壞其真矣。故陰陽四時者，萬物之終始，死生之本也。逆之則災害生，從之則苛疾不起，是謂得道。

(Li and Huang 2021, p. 114)

Harmonizing the principles of yin and yang with the seasonal cycles is crucial for cultivating and preserving primordial pneuma. Thus, adherence to these principles not only prevents the manifestation of illness but also promotes a life lived in harmony with the natural world, ensuring both longevity and quality of health.

Health preservation is fundamentally about not diminishing, and the criterion for determining whether there is diminishment lies in whether it harms the primordial pneuma, specifically manifested in whether one maintains the harmony of yin and yang in the four seasons. Not diminishing as the essence of health preservation is fully in line with the ideal state of Dao. In practical life, individuals inevitably face natural consumption from birth onwards, hence the need to achieve the state of “not diminishing” through “stopping diminishment” (zhisun 止損).

In specific terms, “stopping diminishment” refers to following the Dao of the four seasons to avoid the depletion of primordial pneuma. Throughout the catalog and entries of the book, words like “harm” (shang 傷), “avoid” (hai 害), “do not” (buke 不可), “should not” (wu 勿), “refrain from” (ji 忌), and “avoidance abound” (bi 避), all reflecting the viewpoint of “stopping diminishment”. The book particularly emphasizes methods of stopping diminishment. As Li Pengfei stated: “According to this book, if something is beneficial and causes no harm, it is not recorded; however, if the benefits and detriments are equal, only the detriments are documented and not the benefits” (此書所載，凡物之有益而無損者，不書；或損益相半者，則書其損而不書其益; Li and Huang 2021, p. 149). The “stopping diminishment” concept inherited from medical and miscellaneous schools (zajia 雜家) of thought is exemplified by works like the Huangdi Neijing and the Lushi Chunqiu 呂氏春秋. The theory of xiangcheng xiangwu 相乘相侮11 in the Huangdi Neijing illustrates the seriousness of harm. The Lushi Chunqiu summarizes the types of harm to longevity caused by the five flavors, five emotions, and seven excesses (Gao et al. 1996, p. 47). “Early miscellaneous scholars believed that a person’s natural lifespan is one hundred years. However, many people fail to reach this lifespan limit, mainly due to various harms and disturbances throughout life” (Cheng 2009, p. 737). This indicates that, as long as harm is reduced, people can live longer.

Li Pengfei believes that maintaining moderation (shouzhong 守中) is the key to restraining excess, avoiding both extremes of excess and deficiency, and achieving a balanced state. He emphasizes that moderation prevents excessive consumption, thereby avoiding the depletion of vital essence. The text uses words such as strong, excessive, prolonged, and intense to indicate excess, while restraint prevents excessive expenditure of vital essence. The book states: “The way of nurturing nature lies in not forcing beyond one’s capacity. The Baopuzi says that if one’s ability falls short, forcing it leads to excessive strain. If one’s strength is inadequate, forcing it leads to severe injury. The word forcing is the root of killing life and undermining longevity” (養性之道，莫強所不能堪爾。《抱樸子》曰：“才不逮，強思之，力不勝，強舉之，傷也甚矣。強之一字，真戕生伐壽之本”; Li and Huang 2021, p. 27). In the realm of Tianyuan 天元, avoiding excessive desires is most representative; in the realm of Diyuan 地元, emotions such as anger, contemplation, sorrow, joy, fear, and love must not be excessively expended; and in the realm of Renyuan 人元, one should not consume excessive amounts of food, fruits, grains, vegetables, poultry, livestock, fish, or insects.

In summary, the foundation of health preservation lies in avoiding any damage to the primordial pneuma and using the maintenance of harmony between yin and yang as the criterion for assessment. The concept of “stopping diminishing” is about preventing the depletion of primordial pneuma that occurs from either excess or deficiency. This approach emphasizes the need to steer clear of both doing too much (which can drain energy) and doing too little (which can cause stagnation), thereby ensuring the energy flows smoothly and sustains the body’s health. This principle underscores the delicate balance required to maintain optimal health and prolong life. Unlike other health preservation texts, the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu regards primordial pneuma as the fundamental element of longevity. It integrates this concept with specific daily practices such as diet and emotions, thereby rendering the concept of primordial pneuma more tangible and diverse.

3.2. The Extension of Life through the Three Primes

Li Pengfei not only categorizes the three primes of heaven, earth, and humanity but also assigns specific health preservation content to Tianyuan, Diyuan, and Renyuan. “The parallel thinking mode of the three primes has played a positive role in the construction of Daoist health preservation thoughts and theories, forming a health preservation ideology rich in Daoist characteristics called Sanyuan Yanshou” (Ge 2006, p. 32).

The concept of the three elements of heaven, earth, and humanity being parallel has a long history. The Zhouyi 周易 says: “The book of Yi 易 is broad and comprehensive. There is the way of heaven, man, and earth, embracing the three powers (sancai 三才), and dividing them into two, hence six. The six are not others, but the ways of the three powers” (《易》之為書也，廣大悉備。有天道焉，有人道焉，有地道焉，兼三才而兩之，故六。六者非它也，三才之道也; Chen and Zhao 2020, p. 670). Here, Dao is divided into the way of heaven, the way of earth, and the way of man, called the three powers. Specifically, the Zhouyi also says:

In ancient times, when the sages made the Yi, they intended to follow the principles of nature and life. Therefore, they established the way of heaven as yin and yang, the way of earth as gentleness and firmness (gangrou 剛柔), and the way of man as benevolence and righteousness (renyi 仁義). Embracing the three powers and dividing them into two, hence the Book of Yi has six strokes to form a hexagram; distinguishing yin and yang, alternating between gentleness and firmness, hence the Book of Yi has six positions to form a chapter.

昔者聖人之作《易》也，將以順性命之理。是以立天之道曰陰與陽，立地之道曰柔與剛，立人之道曰仁與義。兼三才而兩之，故《易》六畫而成卦；分陰分陽，迭用柔剛，故《易》六位而成章。

(Chen and Zhao 2020, p. 684)

Yin and yang represent the way of heaven; gentleness and firmness represent the way of earth; and benevolence and righteousness represent the way of man. These three ways are also called the three primes, which constitute the principles and laws of the universe. As for the construction of longevity between heaven, earth, and humanity, the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu is the most representative.

Firstly, Li Pengfei divides the Dao into three categories: heaven, earth, and humanity, with humanity occupying the middle way (zhongdao 中道). The text states: “Heaven, earth, and humanity are classified as the three powers, and humanity occupies the middle way, capable of learning from sages and immortals” (天地人等列三才，人得中道，可以學聖賢，可以學神仙; Li and Huang 2021, pp. 13–14). This statement has three layers of meaning. Firstly, it refers to the three ways of heaven, earth, and humanity, collectively known as the three powers. Secondly, it implies an order among the three ways, with humanity positioned in the middle way. Thirdly, it suggests that humans possess the potential to achieve sagehood and immortality. The first layer of meaning has been elaborated above, and apart from the Zhouyi, the Laozi also frequently mentions the three ways of heaven, earth, and humanity. Regarding the order of heaven, earth, and humanity, Chen Guying 陳鼓應 pointed out that during the pre-Qin period, the three ways were typically presented in the order of heaven, earth, and humanity. While it was only after the Han dynasty that variations like heaven, humanity, earth, or earth, humanity, heaven emerged (Chen and Zhao 2020, p. 671). This change in sequence highlights the concept of humanity occupying the middle way. Furthermore, humanity occupying the middle way enables individuals to observe the heavens and contemplate the earth, comprehend the changes of heaven and earth, and thereby attain the possibility of achieving sagehood and immortality, embodying the potential for the unity of man with heaven.

“The middle way, as the core of Chinese traditional culture, demonstrates the dialectical unity of man and heaven, substance and function, subject and object, embodying a simple dialectical thinking” (Zhang 2020, p. 219). The middle way is not just a mode of thinking but also a transcendent spirit. In terms of thinking mode, it encompasses both the tripartite thinking of universal generation and the dialectical thinking of yin and yang, gentleness and firmness. On the other hand, there is the dialectical thinking of yin and yang. All things possess yin and yang, gentleness and firmness, so people should follow the harmonious (zhonghe 中和) path of combining the virtues of yin and yang and maintaining a balance of gentleness and firmness. Hence, “humanity occupying the middle way” aims to illustrate the unity of subjectivity and objectivity in humans, emphasizing both the uniqueness of life and the fundamental laws of existence. In terms of transcendent spirit, humanity occupying the middle way represents a dual transcendence of spiritual nature and corporeal life, pursuing the values of an ideal personality while striving for the realm of unity between man and heaven. People can learn from sages and also learn to become immortals. Sages and immortals symbolize the transcendence of virtues and eternal life, respectively. Therefore, the proposition of “humanity occupying the middle way” by Li Pengfei aims to highlight the uniqueness and agency of humans, providing the possibility and theoretical foundation for three primes of longevity.

Secondly, the three primes of heaven, earth, and man can extend lifespan. Li Pengfei proposes that the human lifespan consists of three parts: Tianyuan, Diyuan, and Renyuan, each representing sixty years, totaling one hundred and eighty years. He states in his preface: “The lifespan of a person is sixty years for the Tianyuan, sixty years for the Diyuan, sixty years for the Renyuan, totaling one hundred and eighty years. If one does not heed caution, then the loss increases day by day” (人之壽，天元六十，地元六十，人元六十，共一百八十歲。不知戒慎，則日加損焉; Li and Huang 2021, p. 2). This one hundred and eighty years represents the lifespan of individuals under conditions where there is no consumption, serving as an ideal lifespan. In other words, people need to fully adhere to the laws of the universe and the rhythms of life to attain a lifespan of one hundred and eighty years. The book further states:

This text posits that while a lifespan of 180 years is divinely bestowed and represents the maximum given, the actual lifespan one achieves is determined by individual actions. The method to attain this full lifespan is exceedingly rare and is epitomized by the principle of Taiji, encapsulated in the Three-in-One diagram. This diagram features a circle on the outside and a square inside, composed of one Kun and one Qian. Longevity is found within this structure, arising naturally from these principles.

天地人三元，每元六十年。三六百八十，此壽得於天。天本全付與，於人或自偏。全之有其法，奈何世罕傳。函三為一圖，妙歎太極先。外圓而內方，一坤與一乾。定體凝坤象，妙用周乾圜。壽年在其間，得之本自然。

(Li and Huang 2021, p. 260)

This passage particularly emphasizes the influence of individual behavior on life. The lifespan of the three primes is fixed and innate, existing from birth. Whether individuals can fully obtain the lifespan bestowed by heaven and earth depends on their own actions. Li Pengfei inherited the concept of three-in-one from the Zhouyi, summarizing the essence of the three primes lifespan in the song and diagram. Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4 are pictures of different versions of the book, graphicalizing the lifespan of the three primes.

So, how can one reach the age of one hundred and eighty? In order to achieve the longevity of three primes, he proposes the method of lifespan. He writes: “If the essence and energy are not firm, then the lifespan of the Tianyuan will be reduced; if one’s plans are excessive, then the lifespan of the Diyuan will be reduced; if one’s diet is not regulated, then the lifespan of the Renyuan will be reduced” (精氣不固，則天元之壽減矣；謀為過當，則地元之壽減矣；飲食不節，則人元之壽減矣; Li and Huang 2021, p. 2). Further elaborated, the longevity of the Tianyuan hinges on the harmony of yin and yang. The idea guides human desires to neither be suppressed nor indulged prematurely, excessively, or forcefully, with certain prohibitions and avoidances in place. The Diyuan mandates not overtaxing the mind or body, such as not excessively indulging the seven emotions or maintaining any one posture—whether standing, sitting, or lying—for too long. For the Renyuan, aligning with the four seasons and balancing the five flavors form the dietary guidelines. Each of these primes highlights different aspects of living in accordance with natural laws and personal moderation to preserve primordial pneuma and achieve a long, healthy life. The principles involve managing external behaviors and internal conditions to maintain balance and prevent the depletion of primordial pneuma.

In summary, Li Pengfei not only establishes a relationship between the three primes of heaven, earth, and humanity and longevity but also proposes specific methods and approaches to achieve longevity through these three elements. The longevity practices suggested by Li are practical and accessible, encompassing aspects such as sexual health, daily routines, diet, emotional management, medicinal remedies, physical exercises, and sleep patterns. These practices are deeply intertwined with the daily lives of the common people, making the principles of longevity not just theoretical but also integrally connected to everyday activities. This approach makes the concept of maintaining health and prolonging life highly applicable and grounded in the ordinary experiences of life, allowing individuals to integrate these health-preserving strategies seamlessly into their regular habits.

3.3. The Prolonging Life through the Virtue of Yin

The realization of the principles of health preservation is a gradual process, during which the natural depletion of primordial pneuma is inevitable. Consequently, it is essential for individuals to replenish this energy to compensate for the loss. Thus, the text introduces the method of extending life through the cultivation of moral virtues, known as Yinde Yanshou 陰德延壽. This approach suggests that by performing good deeds and accumulating virtue, one can gain longevity. This concept aligns with the broader Daoist belief that living ethically and harmoniously with others not only benefits society but also enhances personal health and prolongs life.

The virtue of yin (yinde 陰德) is rooted in goodness, emphasizing the awareness of every thought. The text states: “The awareness of every thought is the key to achieving the consideration for longevity of the three primes, and the cultivation of one’s virtue nurtures the channels of longevity of the three primes. Indeed, one’s thoughts should not go unnoticed, and one’s virtues should not go unpracticed” (一念所覺，因所以得三元之壽考，一德之修，又所以培三元之壽脈。甚矣，念之不可以不覺，而德之不可以不修也; Li and Huang 2021, p. 254). The awareness of every thought refers to an extremely short period of time. People’s instantaneous reactions are almost instinctual and reflect their character. The book further states:

Heaven rewards good deeds and punishes evil deeds, and spirits reward goodness and punish evil. If one consciously does good deeds, aligning oneself with the Dao in tranquility and encountering blessings in action, then one’s life is in one’s own hands, not subject to the control of fate, and longevity and vitality are achieved without seeking them.

天道福善禍淫，神明賞善罰惡逆。人能刻意為善，靜與道合，動與福會，如此則我命在我，不為司殺所執，不求壽而自壽，不求生而自生。

(Li and Huang 2021, p. 255)

This further explains the concept of “my fate is in my own hands, not in the hands of heaven” (woming zaiwu buzaitian 我命在我不在天), emphasizing the agency and creativity of individuals in the relationship between heaven and humanity. So, how does one cultivate the virtue of yin? The book states:

In cultivation, one should not be confined by wealth or poverty, nor should one exert undue effort. Instead, one should practice goodness in various situations, such as in dealing with fire and water, thieves and robbers, hunger and cold, illness and suffering, coercion and imprisonment, adversity and hardship, as well as in activities like flying, diving, moving, and planting. In all these situations, where there is effort, various forms of virtuous actions can accumulate limitlessly, and one will receive corresponding rewards.

凡可修者，不以富貴貧賤拘，亦不在勉強其所為，但於水火，盜賊，饑寒，疾苦，刑獄逼迫，逆旅狼狽，險陰艱難，至於飛，潛，動，植，於力到處，種種多行方便，則陰德無限量，而受報如之矣。

(Li and Huang 2021, p. 256)

This passage indicates that the practice of yin virtue involves benefiting all beings in the universe, including birds, beasts, flowers, birds, insects, and fish. Therefore, the virtue of yin aims to provide convenience for others or other things and can be accumulated anytime and anywhere. The book provides three examples of longevity through yin virtue:

In the past, a monk possessed six supernatural powers (shentong 神通) and dwelled in the wilderness with a novice monk. The monk knew that the novice monk would die in seven days, so he said: “Your parents missed you and wished for your temporary return. Come back in eight days.” The novice monk did return after eight days, which surprised the monk. Upon investigation, the novice monk on his way home shielded the anthill with his monk’s robe, allowing many ants to survive. As a result, the novice monk extended his lifespan by twelve years.

昔比丘得六神通，與一沙彌同處林野間，比丘知沙彌七日當死，因曰：“父母思汝可暫歸，八日複來。”沙彌八日果來，比丘怪之入三昧。察其事，乃沙彌於歸路中脫袈裟壅水，令不得入蟻穴，得延壽一紀。

(Li and Huang 2021, pp. 255–56)

Sun Shu’ao 孫叔敖 (前630年–前593), when he was young, saw a two-headed snake and, fearing that others might also see it, killed and buried it. His mother said: “I had heard that those with yin virtue would be blessed by heaven, and you would not die.” Later, he became the Prime Minister of Chu (chulingyin 楚令尹).

孫叔敖兒時見兩頭蛇，恐他人又見，殺而埋之，母曰：“吾聞有陰德者，天報之福，汝不死也。”後為楚令尹。

(Li and Huang 2021, p. 256)

Dou Yujun 竇禹鈞 (?–?) dreamed one night that his grandfather told him: “You were getting older without children, and your lifespan was not long. You should cultivate yin virtue early”. Yujun diligently practiced the virtue of yin thereafter without fatigue. Later, he dreamed of his grandfather again, who said: “Due to your yin virtue, heaven had extended your lifespan by three decades, granted you five children, and bestowed honor and prestige, allowing you to reside in a celestial abode.”

竇禹鈞夜夢祖父謂曰：“汝年過無子，又壽不永，當早修陰德。”禹鈞自是勤修陰德，行之罔倦。後又夢其祖父與曰：“天以汝陰德，故延壽三紀，賜五子，榮顯後，居洞天之位。”

(Li and Huang 2021, p. 256)

All three individuals possessed the compassionate intention to benefit all beings, thus accumulating virtue and extending their lifespan. It is worth noting that the extent of their virtuous deeds varied. The novice monk’s rescue of the ant colony stemmed from compassion; Sun Shu’ao’s killing of the two-headed snake demonstrated self-sacrifice and righteousness; and Dou Yujun tirelessly engaged in acts of kindness. Therefore, depending on the intention and frequency of accumulating yin virtue, individuals could extend their lifespan to different degrees. The theory of yin virtue and longevity correlates human lifespan with moral conduct, emphasizing the outward manifestation of inner cultivation, highlighting human sociality and collectivism. “From the perspective of individual life, strengthening moral cultivation can lead to personal longevity, health, and happiness. From a collective standpoint, the idea of nurturing life with virtue contributes to the transformation of societal moral appeals into the conscious practice of moral subjects, thereby promoting the construction of moral civilization at the societal level” (Peng 2012, p. 181).The longevity concept of Yin virtue advocated in the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu is rooted in Daoist thought, incorporating elements from Buddhism and Confucianism. Li Pengfei integrates virtue with Confucian filial piety, adding the concept of Buddhist enlightenment on a gradual cultivation basis. This synthesis achieves both individual and social integration within Daoist health preservation, thereby diversifying the approach to health preservation.

Li Pengfei’s advocates concepts of preserving primordial, extending lifespan through the three primes, and prolonging life through yin virtue highlight the harmonious path of health preservation. Since its publication, the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu has enjoyed widespread circulation and has had a profound impact. The text’s integration of Daoist philosophy with practical health practices has made it a valuable resource in the field of traditional medicine. Its teachings on how to harmonize life’s physical, mental, and spiritual aspects have influenced not only medical practitioners but also individuals seeking a holistic approach to health and longevity. The book’s enduring popularity underscores its significance in contributing to the understanding and application of health preservation principles over the centuries.

4. Multifarious Circulating Editions

The major existing six versions of the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu both domestically and internationally include: the Jianwen edition reprinted by Liu Yuanran in the first year of the Jianwen era (1399); the Recopied edition published by Quanzhou 全州 prefecture in the third year of the Zhengtong era (1438); the Daozang edition in the year 1445; the Chenghua edition engraved by Xie Jiong 謝颎 (?–?) in 1474; the Jiajing edition housed in Shanghai Library; and the Wanli edition engraved by Hu Wenhuan 胡文煥 (?–?) wenhuitang 文會堂. In the process of circulation, two systems of the book emerged: one is the Yanshou Canzan system, including the Daozang edition, Chenghua edition, and Jiajing edition, with the title Sanyuan Yanshou Canzan Shu; the other is the Canzan Yanshou system, including the Jianwen edition, Recopied edition, and Wanli edition, with the title Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu. The continuous reprints of the book indicate its enduring circulation and the dissemination of health culture in society.

4.1. The Yanshou Canzan System

According to the prefaces of Tang Wudu 唐兀䚟 (?–?) in the year 1291, mentioning “five volumes of the Sanyuan Yanshou Canzan Shu“ (Li 1988, p. 526), and Tahai 塔海 (?–?) in the year 1292, mentioning “the Sanyuan Yanshou Canzan Shu” (Li 1988, p. 527), the original title of the book should be the Sanyuan Yanshou Canzan Shu. Therefore, the Yanshou Canzan system predates the Canzan Yanshou system. The Yuan dynasty’s Jujia Biyong Shilei Quanji 居家必用事類全集 excerpted the content of this book and referred to it as “the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu” (Wu 1995, p. 407), indicating that these two transmission systems had already appeared in the Yuan dynasty at least.

The Daozang edition (Figure 5) of the book was first mentioned in prefaces such as Tang Wudu’s in 1291, Yuan Gao’s 元杲 (?–?) in 1338, Ye Yinghe’s 葉應和 (?–?) in 1291, Yao Zhe’s 姚轍 (?–?) in 1292, Tahai’s in 1292, Zhou Tianji’s 周天驥 (?–?) in 1294, and Li Pengfei’s in 1291. The main text is divided into five volumes, with volume four marked as “five coherent volumes”, indicating that the original volume four and volume five may have been combined into one volume.

The Chenghua edition (Figure 6) is currently housed in the East Asian Library of Princeton University in the United States. It begins with Li Pengfei’s preface, followed by the table of contents. Before the main text, there is a section titled Renshuo 人說, followed by the five volumes of the main text, each corresponding in content to the Daozang version. The titles of the volumes are only listed with the book’s name, Sanyuan Yanshou Canzan Shu, and the volume number, without any author’s name, but there are readings and annotations within the text. Xie Jiong, who served as the magistrate of Qiantang during the Chenghua period in 1474, engraved and printed the Sanyuan Yanshou Canzan Shu, the Yangsheng Leizuan, and the Yangsheng Yuelan during his tenure. These publications were titled “Xiangong Jinshi 鄉貢進士 Qiantang 錢塘 County Magistrate 縣知縣 Qiaoyang 樵陽 Xie Jiong”. Princeton University’s East Asian Library houses all three of these books together in the same collection.

The Jiajing edition (Figure 7) is currently housed in the Shanghai Library in China. It begins with Li Pengfei’s preface (with the first page missing), followed by the table of contents. Next is a section titled Renshuo, followed by the five volumes of the main text, each corresponding in content to the Daozang version. The titles of the volumes only list the book’s name, Sanyuan Yanshou Canzan Shu, and the volume number, without any author’s name, but there are readings and annotations within the text. After the main text, there are additional sections titled Zheanji 蟄庵記 and Zheyouji 蟄又記.

After thorough comparison, it is found that the foundational texts of the Chenghua and Jiajing editions, among the three editions mentioned above, are the same.

First, compared to the Daozang edition, these two editions have some differences in content, either additions or deletions. Regarding additions, for instance, under the entry Yu Yousuo Ji 欲有所忌, the Chenghua and Jiajing editions add a note after “eating a lot of gourds harms the liver”, stating “gourds here refer to garlic”. In the entry Jintuo 津唾, after stating “It is said that there is saliva in the joints of bones”, the editions add, “When wind phlegm is obstructed, it doesn’t stick to this”. In the entry Yinshi 飲食, after “Why eat heavenly food and take large doses of medicine”, a note is added: “Excessive indulgence in alcohol and sex leads to premature death, excessive indulgence in rich flavors leads to strange illnesses”. In the category of Chonglei 蟲類, these editions lack entries on centipedes, sand worms, spiders, flower spiders, earthworms, etc.

Second, regarding textual discrepancies, both editions contain numerous common errors. For example, in Yu Buke Zong 欲不可縱, the phrase “After one god departs, a hundred gods leave” mistakenly reads “duo 多” instead of “hou 後”. In Yu You Suo Bi 欲有所避, the phrase “On the twentieth day, the Celestial Masters meet” mistakenly reads “he 河” instead of “tian 天”. In Renshen Suoji妊娠所忌, the phrase “Shou Shaoyang 手少陽 in April” is mistakenly written as “Shou Yang 手陽” instead of “Shou Shaoyang”. There are over seventy such errors in both editions.

Lastly, compared to the Daozang edition, these two editions often classify annotations as main text. For example, under Silu 思慮, it states: “Prolonged contemplation causes qi (氣) stagnation, throat heat does not dissipate, and if both qi and blood are depleted for a long time, illness quickly ensues and premature death results”. Another example is under Jinkong 驚恐, where it is stated: “A woman did not give birth for several days due to sitting on grass too early, causing fear and qi stagnation. Then she was given perilla medicine to dispel the qi, and she was able to give birth”. There are over a dozen such instances. Additionally, within these two editions, the Jiajing edition contains more errors than the Chenghua edition.

Therefore, in the Yanshou Canzan system, the Daozang edition is the most comprehensive, and both the Chenghua and Jiajing editions share the same source, with the former being superior to the latter.

4.2. The Canzan Yanshou System

The Canzan Yanshou system includes the Jianwen edition, the Recopied edition, and the Wanli edition. Both the Jianwen and Recopied editions are currently housed in Japan, with their publication predating the earliest extant domestic edition of the Daozang.

The Jianwen edition (Figure 8), titled the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu, is currently housed in the Imperial Household Agency Library in Japan. It begins with Li Pengfei’s preface, followed by a table of contents and Renshuo, and then the main text spanning five volumes. Each volume is labeled with the name of the book and the volume number, without any attribution. This version is the earliest extant copy of the book, breaking the consensus that the earliest version was the Daozang edition. The Jianwen edition was engraved by Liu Yuanran at the western mountain Daoist temple (xishan daoyuan 西山道院) in Nanjing. Liu was the founder of the Changchun School 長春派 of Daoism, was summoned back to the capital by the Ming Taizu 明太祖 in 1393, conferred the title of Gaodao 高道, and resided at the western mountain Daoist temple. When Ming Renzong 明仁宗 ascended the throne (1425), he was conferred the title of “Chongxu zhidao xuanmiao wuwei guangfan yanjiao zhuangjing pujichangchun zhenren” (沖虛至道玄妙無為光範衍教莊靜普濟長春真人), entrusted with all Daoist affairs throughout the empire. Liu Yuanran’s recasting contributed to the increasing influence of the book due to his reputation.

The recopied edition (Figure 9) is currently housed in the Cabinet Library of the National Archives of Japan. According to the colophon, which states, “Reprinted in the autumn of the wuxu 戊午 year of the Ming dynasty’s Zhengtong era, based on the original printing in 1438 by Quanzhou Prefecture”. This edition was copied from the Quanzhou Prefecture edition of 1438, which was originally kept in Korea but no longer exists. It begins with Li Pengfei’s preface, followed by a table of contents and Renshuo, and then the main text, comprising five volumes, with each volume divided as in the Jianwen edition. Each volume is labeled with the name of the book along with the volume number. This edition bears the seals of four libraries: Chongping Banxue Wensuo 昌平阪學問所, Qiancao Wenku 淺草文庫, Government of Japan Library, and Cabinet Library.

The Wanli edition (Figure 10) is currently housed in the National Library of China, the University of California in America, and the Cabinet Library of Japan. It begins with Li Pengfei’s preface, followed by a table of contents and then the preface Renshuo before the main text, comprising four volumes. Volume four consolidates the contents of volumes four and five from the Jianwen edition. The title of this edition is the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu, followed by the volume number, and “Ming Qiantang Hu Wenhuan Defu Jiao 明錢唐胡文煥德父校” is inscribed at the end. Hu Wenhuan was a renowned engraver and book collector during the Wanli era.

After textual comparison, it is found that the recopied edition shares the same source material as the Jianwen edition. Not only do they share identical titles, volumes, and chapter contents, but their layouts are also largely consistent. Additionally, both editions contain some common errors, such as in Yu Buke Qiang 欲不可強, where “ben 本” is mistakenly written as “mu 木”, and in Vegetables (菜蔬) where “fa 乏” is mistakenly written as “zhi 之”. Upon closer examination, it is evident that both the Jianwen edition and the Recopied edition each have their own errors, with the Recopied edition having more, indicating the superiority of the Jianwen edition. The Wanli edition stands out among the six versions as the most distinctive, containing over six thousand additional characters distributed across volume two (joy, worry, sorrow, daily activities, standing, combing hair, internal organs, clothing, and miscellaneous taboos), volume three (diet, fruits, vegetables, birds, beasts, and fish), and volume four (pillow methods). Upon meticulous examination, it is found that this additional text is sourced from the Song dynasty work, the Yangsheng Leizuan, by Zhou Shouzhong.

Apart from the difference in titles, the content between the Yanshou Canzan and Canzan Yanshou systems also differs significantly.

Firstly, in terms of variant texts, taking the Canzan Yanshou system as an example, in the Longevity of Tianyuan, it states “But nowadays people do not cultivate humanity”, while in the Yanshou Canzan system, “jin 今” is replaced with “ling 令”, in Yu Buke Jue 欲不可絕, it mentions “If one’s thoughts are righteous”, whereas in the Yanshou Canzan system, “zhengzhi 正直” is replaced with “zhenzheng 真正”, and in Sishi Tiaoshe 四時調攝 it mentions “causing susceptibility to wind and dampness”, whereas in the Yanshou Canzan system, “fan 犯” is replaced with “huan 患”.

Secondly, the Yanshou Canzan system contains instances of common text omissions, such as in Youchou 憂愁, where both occurrences of “bise 閉塞” are omitted in “Worry damages the lungs and causes obstruction of the lung qi”. In Jintuo 津唾, “tuozhe 唾者” is omitted in “Saliva overflows to form the spring of nectar”. In the Grains of the White Sesame section, where the phrase “should not be used for supplementation, black sesame is most beneficial” is missing.

Finally, in terms of formatting, in Miscellaneous Taboos, the “old wells are deep wells” and “mountains have holes” sections are merged into one in the Yanshou Canzan system, while the other three versions divide them into two separate sections.

In summary, the extant versions of the Sanyuan Canzan Yanhsou Shu have been circulated both domestically and internationally and can be divided into the Canzan Yanshou system and the Yanshou Canzan system (Figure 11). Among these systems, the Canzan Yanshou system features more complete content and holds greater documentary value, with the Wanli edition being the most exemplary. The printing and dissemination of these versions propagate Li’s advocated concepts of health preservation and culture. Further exploration is needed regarding the editions of the book, including the continued collection and organization of versions, specific reasons for version discrepancies, and the roles played by Daoist practitioners in its transmission.

5. Conclusions

The Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu, compiled by Li Pengfei, has been widely circulated since its publication, with various versions existing both domestically and internationally. Each with its own characteristics, such as the earliest time of the Jianwen edition and the unique content of the Wanli edition. These six versions have formed two transmission systems, namely the Canzan Yanshou and the Yanshou Canzan systems. Li Pengfei reorganizes the Yangsheng Leizuan with the classification method of three primes and adds diverse Daoist and medical classics, making it more integrated and unique. The book advocates the preservation of primordial pneuma as the foundation and proposes the concept of longevity based on the three primes centered on humans and longevity based on the virtue of yin, integrating the trilateral logic of heaven, earth, and humans with the binary logic of prevention and supplementation. It promotes the state of harmony between yin and yang, the unity of man and heaven, and the harmony of physical and spirit, further perfecting the Daoist health preservation ideology system. Therefore, whether in terms of its literature on health preservation or its philosophical ideas, the book embodies the diversity and inclusiveness of Daoism. In subsequent transmissions, the book has also been continuously excerpted and compiled by others, such as the Yuan dynasty’s Jujia Biyong Shilei Quanji, the Ming dynasty’s Shouyang Congshu 壽養叢書, and the Qing dynasty’s Biannong Zhanjing 便農占鏡, among others. The health preservation methods described in the Sanyuan Canzan Yanhsou Shu are simple, practical, and suitable for home use, contributing significantly to improving the physical condition and quality of life of the general populace. The health culture and philosophies promoted by the book align well with the current national initiatives under the “Healthy China” plan, making it highly relevant and worthy of further attention and study. This connection highlights the potential for traditional health practices to contribute to modern health objectives, suggesting that ancient wisdom can play a crucial role in contemporary health promotion and disease prevention strategies.