Harmonizing Diversity: Insights from Zhuangzi’s Concept of Zhi 知

Abstract

Zhuangzi articulates a framework for harmonizing diversity in both thought and practice. An in-depth analysis of the concept of zhi 知 is essential for understanding Zhuangzi’s perspective on achieving harmony concerning the diverse and ever-changing nature of existence. Previous studies on Zhuangzi either label his philosophy as anti-intellectual or fail to sufficiently examine the multi-dimensional nature of zhi as presented in his writings. This article identifies a hierarchical framework of knowledge in the Zhuangzi, including xinzhi 心知 (conscious knowing), xiaozhi 小知 (lesser knowledge), dazhi 大知 (greater knowledge), and zhenzhi 真知 (true knowledge), and discusses its implications for both inner and external harmony. It illustrates Zhuangzi’s critique of conventional forms of knowledge, which often create rigid divisions. The study reveals how practices such as xinzhai 心齋 (fasting of the heart-mind) lead from limited understanding toward zhenzhi, culminating in the realization of zhenren, who lives in accordance with dao. The analysis of various levels of knowing illuminates Zhuangzi’s approach to transcending conventional epistemology while proposing methods to embrace diverse perspectives and achieve better harmony in existence.

1. Introduction

Zhuangzi, as the essential Daoist philosopher, offers a profound vision of harmony that embraces both the diverse nature and the fluid state of reality.1 Scholars have interpreted Zhuangzi’s concept of harmony from relativistic, skeptical, pragmatic, ethical, normative, and holistic perspectives. The many interpretations align with Zhuangzi’s multifaceted philosophy since he opposes moral conventions and established beliefs. On the contrary, Zhuangzi advocates pluralistic observational approaches and the temporary quality of human comprehension.

Several interpretations closely associate Zhuangzi’s harmony with the notion of dao. Earlier studies, influenced by Western metaphysical categories such as ontology, substance, and universal principle, often portrayed dao as a static, transcendent entity. Contemporary scholars, however, reframe it as an evolving plural process—marked by its adaptability, spontaneity, and ethical responsiveness.2 Building on this foundation, harmony in the Zhuangzi is not seen as a passive state of agreement or equilibrium. Rather, it is an active practice of managing conflicts through practical interaction with the world. Scholars suggest that this form of harmony entails relational negotiation—addressing contradictions through context-specific actions, open-ended dialog, and flexibility.3 The views in these readings share their opposition to static categories and strict moral frameworks. The combination of interdependent understanding and embodied practical learning allows harmony to become a manifestation of dao, as well as a means to express dao while creating holistic awareness.

In Zhuangzi’s discussions of harmony, zhi 知 stands as a crucial concept, which is often translated as “knowledge” or “understanding.”4 Zhuangzi presents a unique perspective concerning the concept of zhi, differing from the Confucians, who advocate zhi as moral discernment, or the Mohists, who stress its practical utility.5 Through his writings, Zhuangzi shows how conventional knowledge produces rigid thinking patterns and divisive categories. He proposes an alternative epistemology based on adaptiveness along with temporariness and continuous openness. Importantly, Zhuangzi does not completely reject knowledge in his teachings. In his view, zhi represents a living process in which one focuses on dao while encountering the intricate realities of daily existence. He critiques the misuse of zhi but presents an innovative approach where zhi serves as a tool for cultivating harmony despite different perspectives. The understanding of zhi as an ongoing practice allows people to deconstruct rigid distinctions and develop flexibility, which enables better navigation through uncertain life changes.

In this article, I will examine Zhuangzi’s concept of zhi as a dynamic, multi-dimensional process, transcending rigid epistemological boundaries, fostering inner harmony and external balance through relational awareness and adaptive understanding. Close readings of key passages shall be undertaken to explore Zhuangzi’s critique of conventional knowledge, specifically, its fixation on binary oppositions, divisive exclusions, and absolutist ethics. I also mean to accentuate how Zhuangzi transforms zhi into an unrestricted fluid process of understanding while it rests within the fundamental nature of dao. According to this framework, one can achieve harmony through knowledge because it teaches flexibility and open-mindedness while promoting awareness of context to address diverse and changing world conditions.

2. Beyond Anti-Intellectualism: Diverse Levels of Zhi in the Zhuangzi

Some scholars have interpreted Zhuangzi’s philosophy as anti-intellectual because of the way he describes zhi (knowledge or intellect) in the Renjian shi 人間世 (In the Human World) chapter. Zhuangzi’s claim that knowledge has its origins in conflict and serves as a tool to contend gives rise to this impression, 6 which holds that he completely disapproves of intellectual endeavors. This reading, however, oversimplifies Zhuangzi’s position and overlooks the wider ethical and epistemological dimensions of zhi. Instead of succinctly giving up on knowledge, Zhuangzi addresses its limitedness, intertwinement with human conflict, and the way it can disrupt harmony. His concern is not with rejecting knowledge itself but with its inappropriate applications—knowledge becoming fixed, epistemologically limiting, divisive, or cast off from the way of natural existence. Delving into the deeper currents within Zhuangzi’s works yields an image of him trying to go beyond the partial views toward the construct of zhi and reshape the direction of intellectual pursuits to be in concert with dao so that a more harmonious engagement with the world could be expected.

In the Qiwu lun 齊物論 (Discussion on Making All Things Equal) chapter, Zhuangzi expresses his epistemological skepticism by posing this provocative query: “How could I know that what I call ‘knowing’ is not really ‘not-knowing’? How could I know that what I call ‘not-knowing’ is not really ‘knowing’?” (Ziporyn 2020, p. 18). These questions disrupt absolute boundaries by demonstrating knowledge’s shifting character that relates to dao. Zhuangzi criticizes conventional knowledge since it creates rigid categories from dualistic thinking that leads people to separate things into right and wrong categories. The sort of distinctions based on a conceptual mindset block the natural process of dao and force human understanding into systems of human invention. Zhuangzi opposes these divisive tendencies because he promotes knowledge grounded in natural spontaneity (ziran 自然) and the relational interconnectedness of dao.

The concept of zhi in the Zhuangzi is rich and layered, with diverse meanings. The term shows up around 600 times throughout the 33 chapters, mostly expressing meanings like “to know,” “to understand,” “to realize,” or “to comprehend.” The way the term is used often focuses on experiential and contextual aspects of knowledge since they build practical wisdom. Notably, around 170 occurrences pertain to a broader epistemological dimension, where zhi conveys meanings such as “knowledge,” “intelligence,” “cognitive awareness,” “mental acuity,” or “skillful intelligence” (Zhang 2018). Zhuangzi’s original philosophical intent sometimes remains hidden beneath incorrect interpretations because of the complex usage of zhi. For example, the famous passage from the Yangsheng zhu 養生主 (The Mastery of Nurturing Life) chapter—“For our lives there is a limit, but for knowledge [zhi] there are no limits. To pursue the limitless with the limited, this is but danger” (Lynn 2022, p. 67)—is often cited as evidence of Zhuangzi’s anti-intellectualism. On the surface, this statement appears to warn against the unrestrained pursuit of knowledge, especially when such striving exceeds the natural capacities of human life. Scholars such as Lynn interpret this passage as a cautionary note, emphasizing the inherent mismatch between human finitude and the boundless scope of intellectual endeavors. This tension underscores Zhuangzi’s broader ethical concerns about overreaching ambition and the potential dangers of disproportionate striving.

However, through a more detailed analysis and with reference to the linguistic insights of Tang scholar Lu Deming 陸德明, we can reach a deeper understanding of the concept of zhi in this context. Lu posits that zhi 知 should be interpreted as zhi 智, which denotes calculative reasoning or instrumental intelligence.7 While the neutral sense of zhi refers to awareness or knowledge, zhi as calculative reasoning involves cognitive faculties used for discernment, judgment, and the pursuit of desires based on dualistic distinctions, such as right and wrong or good and evil. This distinction clarifies that Zhuangzi’s critique concerns how we employ knowledge for calculation rather than the knowledge itself. The departure from the guiding principles of dao results in the distortion of the harmonious balance essential for nurturing life. Therefore, Zhuangzi’s warning should be understood as a critique of the misapplication of intellectual faculties rather than a wholesale rejection of knowledge.

In this light, scholars like Yu Ying-shih 余英時 draw attention to the fundamental differences in the perceptions of intelligence by Daoism and Confucianism. Confucianism is concerned with cultivating knowledge as an ethical and cultural tool necessary for individual development, as well as social development. Zhuangzi’s Daoism, on the other hand, places more emphasis on spontaneity and conformity with nature than on the controlled forms of cultural intellect. “Transcendental anti-intellectualism,” as Yu puts it, is the stance of Zhuangzi, to transcend strict epistemological structures without rejecting intellectual activity altogether. This stance calls for a more flexible view that is in harmony with the natural course of life and criticizes traditional knowledge for drawing arbitrary lines (Yu 2003).

In the Renjian shi chapter, as mentioned above, Zhuangzi makes a provocative critique of knowledge on the basis that it emerges from and perpetuates strife in society. This is in line with his overall skepticism about cultural constructs as distortions of ziran. Whereas this critical attitude may seem to eschew intellectual involvement categorically, later historiographical accounts—most notably Sima Qian’s 司馬遷 Shiji, written three centuries after the time of Zhuangzi—portray early Daoist masters as heavily engaged with scholarly tradition. For example, Sima Qian’s narrative describes Laozi as having served as an archivist at the Zhou court, a position suggesting textual knowledge. Similarly, his portrayal of Zhuangzi as an erudite in many fields was the way that Han-era historians interpreted the intellectual range of Daoist thinkers.8 These accounts, as indirect historical evidence, indicate the way later historiographers weighed Daoism’s critical analysis of knowledge instrumentalized against obvious erudition by its practitioners. Rather than rejecting knowledge itself, the Daoist criticism is directed toward the motives behind the systematization of knowledge and toward social structures that prioritize certain types of knowledge.

Zhuangzi’s philosophy offers a nuanced perspective on knowledge, proposing a hierarchical framework that distinguishes between different types. It reflects Daoism’s openness to scientific and technological advancements alongside its skepticism—if not outright rejection—of certain types of knowledge that fragment or distort reality. Joseph Needham provides a compelling lens for understanding this duality in Zhuangzi’s thought by identifying two broad categories of zhi (knowledge): “the social ‘knowledge’ of the Confucians and Legalists, rational but false; and that knowledge of, or insight into, Nature, which they wished to acquire, empirical, perhaps even liable to transcend human logic, but impersonal, universal and true” (Needham 1956, p. 98).

Yang Guorong 楊國榮 distinguishes between two types of knowledge in Zhuangzi’s philosophy: jiwu zhi zhi 極物之知 (knowledge confined to the empirical realm) and tidao zhi zhi 體道之知 (knowledge of comprehending dao). The former represents practical and technical knowing geared toward external objects with instrumental mastery over the world of experience. Useful for practical purposes as it is, Yang argues that it is circumscribed by its functional character. In contrast, Yang describes tidao zhi zhi as a form of metaphysical knowledge that transcends empirical limits and dissolves fragmented distinctions, thereby achieving unity with dao (Yang 2017, pp. 102–12). However, the characterization of dao as a metaphysical concept remains contentious since it risks conflating Zhuangzi’s fluid epistemological framework with later systematized metaphysical constructs. Nonetheless, Yang’s analysis highlights Zhuangzi’s hierarchical preference for relational and adaptive knowing over divisive and instrumental reasoning, a perspective that aligns with the text’s central emphasis on achieving harmony through cognitive unlearning and existential attunement.

Expanding on this framework, Xu Guangdong 徐廣東 refines the classification of zhi in Zhuangzi’s philosophy into three levels: ganzhi 感知 (sensory knowledge), xinzhi 心知 (rational knowledge), and qizhi 氣知 (intuitive knowledge), each of which represents a step toward spiritual understanding. Ganzhi is a sensory-based approach that uses touch, hearing, and sight to relate to the external world. Despite being fundamental, it is constrained by human perception. By concentrating on the internal logic of things, xinzhi progresses to rational cognition. This level is criticized by Zhuangzi for being inflexible and having a propensity to make arbitrary divisions. Through intuitive attunement to dao, the highest form, qizhi, surpasses both rational and sensory limitations. This is accomplished by emptying the mind and cultivating harmony with natural energies (qi). This hierarchy reflects Zhuangzi’s emphasis on transcending ego-driven cognition, aligning knowledge with dao, and achieving ultimate spiritual liberation (G. Xu 2022).

Yang Fenggang 楊鋒剛 further extends this framework, proposing four distinct levels of knowledge in the Zhuangzi. The first level pertains to practical knowledge derived from everyday experience. The second concerns theoretical inquiry into the “world of things,” encompassing an intellectual exploration of phenomena. The third level addresses value judgments within the realm of thought and culture, reflecting ideological and ethical considerations. The fourth and highest level is “true knowledge” (zhenzhi 真知), which emerges as the epistemological expression of the “true person” (zhenren 真人). This paradigm constitutes a virtue epistemology where authentic knowing is fundamentally dependent on the existential realization of the zhenren. Rather than intellectual mastery, true knowledge manifests through the zhenren’s harmonization with dao—an embodied wisdom that dissolves the subject–object dichotomy, achieving non-dual unity between cosmological truth and human existence. Zhuangzi critiques and deconstructs the first three levels of knowledge to reveal their limitations, ultimately highlighting this foundational principle: genuine epistemic authority resides not in cognitive claims but in the perfected life realm of the sage (Yang 2018).

The philosophy of Zhuangzi is sophisticated and subtle in its grasp of zhi as having a twofold power to either disrupt or harmonize the natural order of existence. In Zhuangzi’s epistemology, zhi operates on many different levels and by many different means, each performing different functions within human life. Although his critique of certain forms of knowledge—particularly the calculative, acquisitive, and abstract one from dao—is biting, Zhuangzi is not dismissing knowledge entirely. Instead, he points out the risks of knowledge pursued for utilitarian or egocentric motives, which could result in disintegration, segregation, and disturbance of natural harmony. On the contrary, Zhuangzi appeals for a mode of knowing that promotes oneness, togetherness, and an organic mode of being. It is this orientation that makes possible a deeper experience of knowledge beyond utility and toward a complete understanding consonant with dao’s spontaneous and relational nature.

Building on previous scholarship, this article aims to provide a closer examination of Zhuangzi’s epistemological framework by focusing on four key dimensions of zhi as presented in the Zhuangzi: xinzhi 心知 (conscious knowing), xiaozhi 小知 (lesser knowledge), dazhi 大知 (greater knowledge), and zhenzhi 真知 (true knowledge). These dimensions not only reflect different modes of knowing but also illustrate a progression toward a deeper and more integrated understanding of the world. Xinzhi (conscious knowing) is the rational mind’s thinking and reflective capacity. It is the ground level of human knowledge upon which intellectual activities are based. Zhuangzi condemns too much reliance on xinzhi and proposes instead the practice of xinzhai (mind-fasting), a meditative practice that aims to “empty” the heart-mind (xin 心). It fosters receptivity to the external world and inner detachment at the same time. Xiaozhi (lesser knowledge) and dazhi (greater knowledge) establish a distinction between narrow, confined ways of perceiving the world and expansive, integrative modes of understanding the world. Whereas lesser knowledge suggests narrow and usually fragmented knowledge characteristic of practical or utilitarian thought, greater knowledge suggests wider and more systematic understanding attuned to the interdependence of all things. At the highest level, zhenzhi (true knowledge) goes beyond these distinctions altogether. It involves becoming one with dao, in which the dichotomy between subject and object, between knower and known, ceases to exist. In describing these aspects of zhi, Zhuangzi presents a refined critique of knowledge without rejecting its worth. He warns against conflating superficial or limited forms of understanding with deeper, more profound insights, urging instead a path of intellectual and spiritual engagement that harmonizes with dao. In the sections that follow, I will examine each of these four dimensions in greater detail, analyzing their roles, interconnections, and contributions to Zhuangzi’s broader philosophical vision. Together, these dimensions create a picture of zhi that not only condemns its divisive quality but also proclaims its power to establish harmony between oneself and the world.

3. Cultivating Inner Harmony: Xinzhi (Conscious Knowing) and Xinzhai (Mind-Fasting)

The concept of heart–mind (xin) represents the human capacity for knowledge acquisition, emotional awareness, and spiritual cultivation in Zhuangzi’s thought. In his writings, Zhuangzi emphasizes that although rational cognition or conscious knowing (xinzhi) is needed to deal with the world’s complexity, it nevertheless imposes a limitation on one’s ability to be in harmony with dao. This dual perspective underpins Zhuangzi’s epistemology, which critiques conventional modes of knowing while advocating for transformative practices such as xinzhai, or “fasting of the heart-mind.” By transcending the constraints of xinzhi, xinzhai facilitates inner harmony, ethical responsiveness, and spiritual freedom. This section examines the function and limitations of xinzhi as a cognitive and rational faculty and explores xinzhai as a holistic response to its constraints. Through an analysis of Zhuangzi’s parables and metaphors, the ethical, existential, and epistemological dimensions of these concepts are unpacked, offering insight into Zhuangzi’s vision of harmonizing with dao.

Zhuangzi views xinzhi as a fundamental ability for understanding and responding to the world. The Waiwu 外物 (External Things) chapter states: “Eyes if keen provide clear vision; ears if keen provide sharp hearing; … mind if sharp provides intelligence; intelligence if perceptive provides virtue” (Lynn 2022, p. 480). This analogy brings out the essential role of the heart–mind as a cognitive faculty of perception and interpretation that anchors sensory awareness, rational judgment, and practical discrimination. In its most elementary form, the process of xinzhi begins with sensory perception, which provides the raw material for understanding reality. Zhuangzi acknowledges the importance of this preliminary stage of cognition because sensory awareness allows individuals to be engaged with their environment directly and to have an initial understanding of the world. Meanwhile, he cautions against overdependence on sensory input, which can result in distorted views of reality and limitations in one’s perception of individual experience. This aligns with his belief in the limitations of the senses and suggests the need for overcoming these limitations to reach a flexible and adaptive cognition.9

Aside from sensory awareness, xinzhi extends to practical reasoning and instrumental calculation. While Zhuangzi would be willing to acknowledge the useful function of reason in everyday life, he critiques its tendency to impose artificial distinctions upon reality. As the dominant type of human thought, Zhuangzi contends, xinzhi severs the unity of being into fragmentation and decomposition into the fixed schema. This process of categorization makes artificial distinctions, such as right and wrong, likes and dislikes, self and others, or subject and object. Although these are convenient for functional purposes in some contexts, they necessarily distort the fluid and interconnected nature of dao. By relying on narrow and inflexible frameworks, xinzhi obstructs the possibility of attaining a holistic understanding of the world, leading individuals to become trapped within their own limited constructs. This critique is exemplified in the famous parable of the “Happiness of Fish” from the Qiushui 秋水 (Autumn Floods) chapter, where Zhuangzi humorously challenges Huizi’s rigid, logic-driven reliance on xinzhi. The dialog refers to the limitations of operating with fixed categories of knowledge and subject–object dichotomy and how these abstractions diminish the richness of life to simplistic constructs. Huizi’s objection—“You are not a fish, so how can you know its happiness?”—assumes the need for immediate, empirical familiarity with knowledge. Zhuangzi’s response maintains the subjective nature of all perspectives and the futility of seeking absolute knowledge. Rather than attempting to settle the dispute through reasoning, Zhuangzi redirects attention to the shared human perception of the fish’s happiness, illustrating the interaction between subjective awareness and lived experience. The fable demonstrates that xinzhi entangles people in artificial distinctions, concealing the underlying oneness and interconnectedness of existence.10

In addition to its epistemological dimensions, xinzhi presents substantial ethical implications. Tang Junyi 唐君毅 identifies Zhuangzi’s xinzhi as externally oriented, involving a continual pursuit of acquisition and a mindset of calculative thinking (Tang 2005, pp. 25–27). It aligns with what Zhuangzi terms the “mechanical heart-mind” (jixin 機心). This mindset is characterized by a desire to control and exploit nature, often through technological means, resulting in a disenchanted worldview.11 The mechanical mindset disrupts the inherent balance of human beings and nature, substituting for free, spontaneous, instinctual relationships with deliberate, mechanistic approaches. It is a departure from natural simplicity and the imposition of an anthropocentric, utilitarian worldview that ultimately harms human beings and the environment. Zhuangzi denounces this mechanistic thinking for being concerned with calculated ends and external outcomes, which it asserts leads to alienation from dao. The criticism is made vividly real in the Tiandi 天地 (Heaven and Earth) chapter by the encounter between the gardener and Zigong. When he hears Zigong describe how a mechanical device operates, the gardener becomes visibly agitated, laughing sarcastically as he eliminates the possibility of using mechanical devices. He argues that reliance on mechanical devices always gives rise to a “mechanical heart-mind,” which perturbs one’s own natural simplicity and purity. Here, Zhuangzi warns against the danger of submitting to mechanistic reasoning and letting it dominate one’s mind, as it destroys the comprehensive harmony with dao and breaks down the very essence of spontaneity and simplicity that is needed to coexist with nature.

Zhuangzi’s skepticism opposes the restrictions of xinzhi, which prevents one from embracing the spontaneous harmony of dao by confining the heart–mind inside rigid patterns of thought. In response, Zhuangzi proposes that xinzhai represents a heart–mind fasting technique, which transforms cognitive awareness. By refining knowledge rather than completely rejecting it, this practice frees the heart–mind from prejudices, attachments, and predetermined conceptions. Through the practice of xinzhai, the heart–mind achieves a state of emptiness (xu 虚) and receptivity, thus allowing cognitive faculties to match dao’s fluid interconnected essence. It allows people to go beyond dualistic thinking so they can better connect with the natural spontaneity of life.12

The practice of xinzhai focuses on cultivating stillness and emptiness, fostering an active openness in the heart–mind. This state frees individuals from the divisive tendencies of conventional cognition—such as preferences, judgments, and ego-driven impulses—enabling a more harmonious engagement with the world. Zhuangzi asserts that xinzhai is not a passive condition but an active mode of receptivity, described in the Renjian shi chapter as “listening with the qi (vital energy).” This mode of perception dissolves desires, biases, and attachments, thus transcending the limitations of sensory perception and rational thought. Wang Bo 王博 explains that Zhuangzi distinguishes between three levels of engagement: the ear, the heart–mind, and qi. While the ear and heart–mind create distinctions between agreeable and disagreeable stimuli, qi remains receptive and formless, harmonizing all elements into unity and fostering a state of emptiness and tranquility. In this emptiness, the heart–mind becomes an “empty chamber,” free of external distractions yet illuminated by infinite light, guiding individuals away from restless pursuits and back to dao and the essence of life (B. Wang 2013, pp. 51–54).

The metaphor of the mirror, frequently invoked in Daoist philosophy, encapsulates the essence of xinzhai. A mirror reflects the world without retaining images, symbolizing the emptied heart–mind’s capacity to perceive reality without distortion or interference. Zhuangzi illustrates this idea with the statement in the Ying Diwang 應帝王 (Fit for Emperors and Kings) chapter, “Be empty, that is all. The Perfect Man uses his mind like a mirror—going after nothing, welcoming nothing, responding but not storing. Therefore, he can win out over things and not hurt himself” (Watson 2013, p. 59). This imagery highlights the impartiality and clarity that xinzhai cultivates, enabling individuals to navigate life’s complexities with wisdom and equanimity. By relinquishing attachments and preconceptions, the heart–mind becomes attuned to dao’s spontaneous rhythms, fostering a seamless and responsive interaction with the world.

Zhuangzi’s philosophy vividly demonstrates the transformative power of xinzhai through evocative parables, such as those of Cook Ding and the woodcarver Qing. In the Yangsheng zhu 養生主 (The Mastery of Nurturing Life) chapter, the story of Cook Ding serves as a profound illustration of xinzhai in practice. Rather than relying on rigid techniques or fixed rules, Cook Ding achieves mastery through an intuitive attunement to dao. His extraordinary skill in butchering oxen is explicitly linked to his ability to empty his mind of preconceived notions and rigid frameworks, allowing him to enter a state of effortless action, or wuwei 無為 (non-action). Cook Ding explains that during his work, his perceptual faculties (guanzhi 官知) cease to dominate: “Perception and understanding have come to a stop, and spirit moves where it wants” (Watson 2013, p. 19). By silencing these faculties, he transcends calculative thought and ego-driven impulses, enabling his spirit to flow freely in harmony with the task at hand. This state of xinzhai allows him to act unreflectively upon the unique form of each ox, bringing into being spontaneity (ziran) and responding instinctively to the natural complexity of his environment. Cook Ding’s approach is not significant merely because of technical expertise but because it involves a deeper alignment with dao. His movements express a balance and harmony from within that are born of an empty and receptive mind that is not cramped by rigid distinctions or excessive deliberation. The parable, therefore, illustrates how xinzhai enables profound transformations through its unique approach to existence, which connects people beyond ordinary means to the changing flow of existence.

Similarly, the woodcarver Qing, described in the Dasheng 達生 (Understand Life) chapter, achieves mastery by fasting his heart–mind. Before beginning his work, Qing undergoes mental and spiritual preparation, detaching himself from external concerns like praise and reward. This detachment leads him to a profound state of stillness and receptivity, allowing him to perceive the “Heavenly nature” of the tree and align his actions with dao. His creations emerge naturally, embodying the principles of ziran and wuwei and transcending conventional distinctions between subject and object, skill and clumsiness. Both stories highlight the essence of xinzhai as a process of clearing away preconceptions and self-assertion, entering a state of emptiness (xu), and allowing the spirit to guide actions spontaneously. This transformative practice enhances concentration and environmental receptivity, allowing practitioners to navigate situations with smoothness and adaptability. As Wai Wai Chiu aptly describes, practitioners embody a state of being “more like a carefree painter observing flowers than a police officer observing traffic,” highlighting the fluid and intuitive nature of their actions (Chiu 2019). Xinzhai, thus, offers a pathway to inner freedom and transcendence. By emptying the heart–mind of attachments and preconceptions, practitioners achieve clarity and peace, liberating themselves from the constraints of ego-driven impulses and rigid cognitive frameworks. This spiritual freedom is further encapsulated in the concept of “sitting in forgetfulness” (zuowang 坐忘), a practice that dissolves dualistic distinctions and fosters a profound unity with dao.

Through its emphasis on emptiness, spontaneity, and relation attunement, the practice of xinzhai offers a way of transformation toward the achievement of inner harmony and freedom of life. By steering the heart–mind away from egoistic trends, xinzhai makes way for understanding and actions to find alignment with dao’s flowing and interconnected condition. This practice embodies Zhuangzi’s holistic approach to knowledge, aiming to harmonize cognitive faculties with Daoist principles and to cultivate a way of life that embraces the diversity and spontaneity of existence.

4. Transcending Limited Perspectives: Xiaozhi (Lesser Knowledge) and Dazhi (Greater Knowledge)

Zhuangzi’s epistemology, as scholars have noted, delineates two distinct levels of knowledge: practical knowledge and true knowledge. Practical knowledge, which Zhuangzi categorizes as xiaozhi (lesser knowledge) and dazhi (greater knowledge),13 is founded upon ordinary experience and restricted to the domain of empirical perception. Although helpful for navigating everyday life, such knowledge restricts one’s ability to grasp the broader interconnectedness of all things. Conversely, true knowledge, as conceived by Zhuangzi, entails an understanding of dao, providing a deep insight that surpasses rational analysis and subjective viewpoints. This higher form of knowledge transcends technical or practical concerns, offering a holistic understanding of life through attunement to dao. True knowledge is acquired through experiential engagement, leading to the integration of being and knowing. Zhuangzi suggests that while both xiaozhi and dazhi are grounded in empirical reality, the progression from xiaozhi to dazhi signifies a movement toward zhenzhi, or true knowledge. This progression reflects an aspiration to transcend the limits of conventional epistemology. Ultimately, Zhuangzi advocates for a relational and dynamic notion of knowledge that moves one toward a free and genuine way of life. This section explores the interplay between xiaozhi and dazhi, comparing their cognitive features and ethical implications. Their progression represents a fundamental shift in perspective—from constrained and inflexible viewpoints to an expansive, adaptable comprehension of reality. This transformation signifies not merely intellectual growth but also a reorientation of ethical values, characterized by humility and adaptability. This analysis of xiaozhi and dazhi provides the foundation for examining zhenzhi in the following section.

Xiaozhi, or lesser knowledge, represents a limited and ultimately flawed mode of understanding, characterized by rigid conceptual boundaries that compartmentalize reality into discrete, seemingly independent categories. While useful in narrow contexts, this approach proves fundamentally inadequate for grasping the profound interconnectedness and dynamic nature of dao. Zhuangzi uses a number of parables and skeptical arguments to demonstrate how xiaozhi constrains human cognition, generating illusions about the world, faulty moral conclusions, and alienation from reality. The core flaw of xiaozhi, for Zhuangzi, lies in its inherent dogmatism. It imposes static frameworks on what Pengbo Liu describes as a reality that is “highly complex, heterogeneous, and constantly changing” (P. Liu 2020). This cognitive imposition of rigidity onto dynamic existence underlies both its intellectual limitations and moral dangers.

Zhuangzi starts his criticism of xiaozhi by questioning its cognitive limitations from within. According to him, xiaozhi limits one’s perception of reality by setting it within confined views and dogmatic compartments, thereby preventing one from conceiving of a reality beyond immediate experience. The famous parable of the frog in the well, found in the Qiushui chapter, serves as a vivid illustration of this point. The frog, confined to the limited confines of its well, is incapable of grasping the vastness of the ocean as described by a sea turtle. The tale points out how xiaozhi is created by the immediate environment and customary modes of thinking, hence limiting one’s capacity for greater vision. The frog’s inability is not due to any inherent lack of intelligence but rather to the limitations imposed by its circumscribed environment and experience. It is trapped within a particular cognitive framework, unable to imagine possibilities that lie beyond its immediate grasp. This parable highlights how our environment, experiences, and preconceptions can profoundly shape and limit our understanding of the world.

Furthermore, Zhuangzi critiques the tendency of xiaozhi to rely on rigid categorization, exposing the absurdity of dividing reality into fixed, static categories. The paradoxical statement, “a white horse is not a horse,” serves as an example of this flawed logic.14 The effort to determine the nature of a “horse” based on certain characteristics such as color causes a fracturing of our knowledge, which makes it impossible to understand the underlying continuity and unity of existence. From such examples, Zhuangzi demonstrates that xiaozhi is not only a deficient type of knowledge but that it distorts one’s perception of the world by imposing spurious boundaries and divisions where none are required. It is not merely intellectual deficiency but a built-in flaw that keeps one from living in this world unmediated and undistorted.

Zhuangzi extends his critique of xiaozhi beyond its cognitive deficits to include its ethical implications, arguing that xiaozhi fosters arrogance and absolutism and encourages the imposition of one’s limited perspective on others.15 The parable of Hundun (Chaos), in the Ying Diwang chapter, serves as a powerful metaphor for this destructive tendency. Here, the emperors Shu and Hu attempt to impose order on Hundun by drilling holes into him and ultimately killing him. This tragic outcome serves as a metaphor for the destructive consequences of applying rigid structures to a world that inherently requires adaptability and fluidity. Similarly, in the Zhile 至樂 (Perfect Happiness) chapter, there is the story of a sea bird that is killed by the ruler of Lu. The king, since he was kind, treated the bird according to anthropocentric customs, ignoring the unique needs and nature of the bird. In this parable, the presentation of imposing strict human norms on the non-human world displays its destructive consequences and the perils of dogmatic and biased thinking. Through these examples, Zhuangzi cautions against the application of rigid frameworks to the natural world, advocating instead for an approach that embraces the inherent interconnectedness and dynamic nature of existence.

In the Qiwu lun chapter, Zhuangzi introduces the concept of chengxin 成心, or “formed mind,” which further illustrates the limitations inherent in xiaozhi. Chengxin denotes a cognitive orientation that is “settled” or “established” within an individual’s heart-mind, shaped by ingrained thought patterns, personal attitudes, and past experiences (Chong 2011). Guo Xiang’s commentary on Zhuangzi clarifies the implications of chengxin, particularly how it leads to biased viewpoints. He argues that these pre-established frameworks restrict perspectives and distort one’s perception of reality. Such partiality, according to Guo, is the root of distinctions between right and wrong, making chengxin the fundamental cause of disputes and conflicts. When individuals adhere to fixed perspectives, they tend to think that they are correct while others are incorrect. This rigid adherence to fixed categories results in a worldview marked by conflict and disconnection, as predetermined notions oversimplify reality and fail to accommodate its fluid and dynamic nature. Consequently, this results in fragmentation and alienation. The inherent rigidity of chengxin undermines an individual’s ability to remain open and respond spontaneously to evolving circumstances; hence, it increases cleavages and misconceptions (Chiu 2019).

To overcome the restrictiveness of chengxin, Zhuangzi introduces the concept of dazhi, or greater knowledge. In contrast to the limited understanding generated by xiaozhi, dazhi is a broad and relational understanding of reality. This broad awareness enables people to go beyond limited understandings and move toward the world in a more wholesome manner. This distinction between xiaozhi and dazhi is contrasted dramatically in the Xiaoyao you 逍遙遊 (Free and Easy Wandering) chapter of the fable of cicada, turtle dove, and the great bird Peng. The cicada and turtle dove, representing xiaozhi, are constrained by their narrow experiences, perceiving Peng’s vast journeys as absurd and incomprehensible. Their limited scope of vision explains their inability to transcend what is immediately before them and to embrace broader horizons. Peng, on the other hand, is a symbol of unlimited vision that transcends space and time, exemplifying the higher-order thinking characteristics of dazhi. The fact that Peng can fly over vast distances and diverse landscapes is not merely a physical capability but a metaphor for a mind that has gone beyond the limitations of xiaozhi.

Scholarly interpretations of this parable, however, are diverse. For example, Karyn Lai contends that the contrast between xiaozhi and dazhi is epistemological, not their respective contents. Peng and the cicada, despite their contrasting scopes of vision, are both short-sighted to a certain extent due to their respective standpoints. Lai contends that dazhi transcends fixed assertions of truth and exercises sagacity in accepting that all standpoints have limitations (Lai 2006). While this interpretation focuses on the relativistic aspects of Zhuangzi’s philosophy, his works point out a tendency toward the more open and integrated form of dazhi instead of the closed and limited form of xiaozhi. This preference becomes evident in the Qiwu lun chapter, where Zhuangzi states, “great intelligence is broad and deep; petty intelligence involves nit-picking” (Lynn 2022, p. 22). Here, dazhi is characterized by its breadth and depth, enabling a more holistic and profound understanding, while xiaozhi is associated with trivial, circumscribed perspectives. In the Waiwu chapter, the story of Lord Yuan’s dream of the divine tortoise further illustrates this contrast. The tortoise, despite its divine wisdom and ability to make accurate predictions, is ultimately unable to escape the fishing net and cannot avoid the disaster of being gutted. This analogy serves to underscore the necessity of transcending the confines of xiaozhi because conformity to narrow-minded wisdom will bring about disaster. Only by discarding xiaozhi, advises Zhuangzi, can the individual awaken to the liberation achievable through dazhi. The tortoise, despite its knowledge, is ultimately limited by its adherence to a fixed perspective, highlighting the importance of transcending narrow definitions of wisdom to embrace a more flexible and adaptable approach to life.

Yet, Zhuangzi is also aware of the essential limitations of even the broadest view, such as dazhi.16 As Lai notes, any point of view must be “lodged” in its contextual setting; in other words, no point of view, no matter how extensive, can utterly transcend its contextually defined constraints. Zhuangzi critiques the futile attempt to force someone with one perspective to adopt the other perspective, such as convincing a frog in a well to comprehend the vastness of the ocean. Rather, he advocates for a sagely approach that changes easily from one way of thinking to another without being caught in either one. This sagely point of view is one that is dynamic, relational, and connected with the multifarious nature of existence. While Zhuangzi is aware that all positions are limited, his philosophy is ultimately biased toward dazhi just because it is capable of overcoming rigid determinations and toward an ever-greater sense of the real. It is more a question of coming to an open, flexible, and receptive attitude toward multiple points of view rather than arriving at an absolute, final perception. In other words, it is not a state but a continuous process of learning and adaptation.

The difference between xiaozhi and dazhi is further explained in parables such as the “giant gourd” and the “useless tree.” In these parables, Zhuangzi satirizes the narrow, utilitarian thinking of xiaozhi by showing the necessity of unfettered imagination in deciding what is useful and valuable.17 In the story of the gourd, for instance, Huizi dismisses its usefulness because it does not conform to conventional purposes, such as carrying liquids or functioning as a dipper. Zhuangzi redefines its potential; however, envisioning the gourd as a vessel for floating across lakes and rivers. Such redescription is illustrative of the ways that adaptability and creativity can reveal alternative types of utility beyond rigid functionalist criteria. Similarly, the story of the “useless tree” also critiques Huizi’s narrow perception of value. Huizi dismisses the large, twisted tree because it cannot be used for timber, reflecting a narrow perception of utility. Zhuangzi opposes this, however, with the tree’s potential to provide shade and shelter, illustrating the way in which utility is not something inherent in things but a quality that exists in relation to things and dependent on context. Such an appreciation of utility depends upon our knowledge and experience in the world. These examples point to the epistemological openness of dazhi and reveal new possibilities after a change in mind that invalidates previously established value judgments.

The transition from xiaozhi to dazhi is a change not just in cognition but also in attitude and ethics. By recognizing that all distinctions exist within a specific context, dazhi fosters humility and empathy, as well as dissolves intellectual arrogance. By complying with dao’s flexibility, dazhi facilitates versatility in coping with life’s challenges and embracing a number of potential responses and adaptations to mutable circumstances. Zhuangzi critiques rigid ethical frameworks that rely on fixed moral judgments, instead advocating for a dynamic interplay of perspectives. This adaptability is vividly illustrated in the Qiushui chapter, where the River God, He Bo, initially perceives his own domain as vast and boundless. However, upon encountering the immense sea and the Lord of the North Sea, He Bo is humbled, recognizing the relative smallness of his own perspective. This encounter exemplifies how dazhi arises from an awareness of one’s limitations. The story stresses the significance of seeing beyond the limitations of one’s vision and the power of transformation through accepting a wider view.18

Building on the tension between xiaozhi and dazhi, Zhuangzi critiques the limitations of conventional knowledge and accesses its potential for transcendence. Situated in Zhuangzi’s perspectivism, this inquiry underscores the need to develop a broad awareness that reflects the dynamic and interdependent nature of existence. Zhuangzi’s perspectivism has been traditionally understood as relativism, in which all opinions and beliefs are considered to be on an equal footing. However, this interpretation is challenged by scholars such as Thomas Ming, who offers a more nuanced understanding. Ming posits that Zhuangzi prescribes a constructive approach to disagreement rather than advocating dogmatism and nihilistic relativism. He coins the term “faultless disagreement” in the sense that the debate turns into a dialectical process focused on engagement and mutual exploration, and not necessarily the pursuit of absolute truth or victory. It turns disagreement into a collaborative dialog where intellectual spontaneity is preserved while allowing intellectual openness and flexibility (Ming 2020). Similarly, David B. Wong challenges the common view of Zhuangzi’s skepticism as nihilistic, reframing it as a readiness to embrace evolving perspectives that broaden understanding and include diverse experiences (Wong 2022). Such a mindset plays a key role in overcoming the confines of xiaozhi and reaching for the broad and integrative vision of dazhi. Such practice, hardly a final terminal stage, is an adaptable method of approaching life’s unpredictability. Through the cultivation of humility, flexibility in the change in perspectives, and intellectual mobility, human beings are placed within an ongoing path of illumination leading toward self-becoming, as well as respect for the diversity that is represented in varied experiences.

5. Becoming One with Dao: Zhenzhi (True Knowledge) and Zhenren (True Person)

Zhuangzi critiques conventional epistemology and proposes a transformative path to understanding reality. At the heart of this vision lie the ideals of zhenzhi (true knowledge) and zhenren (true person), which embody a holistic integration of being and knowing, surpassing ordinary human cognition. The pursuit of zhenzhi and the realization of zhenren represent continuous processes of growth and transformation. This philosophical journey encourages individuals to embrace the fluidity and interconnectedness of existence, thereby dissolving dualistic distinctions and fostering ethical and existential harmony. By disrupting stable boundaries of knowledge and self, human beings are allowed to penetrate everyday perception to attain a denser awareness of dao and a fuller assumption of being. This section will explore the character of zhenzhi and its difference from ordinary knowledge, the transformative practices of obtaining it, and how these practices culminate in the realization of zhenren, the highest ideal of personality achievable through Daoist cultivation.

In Zhuangzi’s view, traditional knowledge operates under both subjective biases and built-in prejudices, as well as being limited by socially constructed norms and rigid classification systems. He distinguishes between two forms of knowledge, as discussed in the preceding section: xiaozhi and dazhi. Although differing in scale and scope, both forms are ultimately constrained by the boundaries of human cognition, rendering them incapable of capturing the interconnected and dynamic nature of reality. Xiaozhi is characterized by its particular focus on separate and individual facts and its provision of a reductionist and disjointed view of the world. Zhuangzi points out its inability to perceive the broader interrelations and dynamic processes that constitute existence. This relative restrictiveness is met by the aspiration of dazhi to transcend such limits of perception by being broader in scope. But dazhi has its own limitations. While it strives to understand the interconnectedness of all things and acknowledges diverse perspectives, it remains bound by human conceptual frameworks and perspectival thinking. Therefore, even such knowledge that gains greater scope and depth is limited by human subjectivity. Zhuangzi would say that unavoidable subjectivity prevents any form of knowledge, including dazhi, from fully aligning with the spontaneity and naturalness of dao. Keqian Xu 徐克謙, drawing on Zhuangzi’s statement “Small knowledge does not reach to great knowledge,” argues that the validity and scope of knowledge depend on the existential state of the knower. The capacity to perceive and understand is inherently shaped by one’s living situation and level of “awakening.” As Xu notes, a person limited by their immediate experiences cannot grasp the larger truths that lie beyond their situational boundaries. Similarly, just as one awakens from a dream to realize its illusory nature, individuals must transcend their conventional frameworks of thought to approach what Zhuangzi calls zhenzhi (K. Xu 2022). This form of knowledge involves moving beyond the limitations imposed by socially constructed distinctions and the perspectival constraints of the human mind.

For Zhuangzi, zhenzhi arises not from accumulation but from unlearning—a participatory attunement to dao’s spontaneity.19 Rather than presenting dao as an ultimate truth or cosmic principle, Zhuangzi approaches it as an ineffable process of natural transformation that eludes fixed definition yet manifests in the spontaneous functioning of things. This view of dao has profound echoes with Heaven (tian 天), though Zhuangzi would prefer to describe their relation in metaphor and indirect suggestion rather than systematized metaphysical statement. The distinction of the human domain from Heaven focuses attention on the inbuilt impossibility of understanding the latter overall, as mortal sight, cut off by limitations of life, can at most perceive isolated glimpses of the complexity of the universe.20 Zhenzhi, therefore, demands a shift from intellectual analysis to existential insight (S. Liu 2019; K. Xu 2022). This transformation involves a reorientation of perception and understanding, enabling individuals to transcend the limitations of human cognition and social constructs. Zhuangzi’s critique of the unreliability of language,21 the rigidity of conventional knowledge, and the limitations of human perception do not lead to nihilism. Instead, it invites individuals to recognize and embrace the fluidity, interdependence, and dynamic interconnectedness underlying the world’s apparent diversity. By adopting this perspective, individuals align themselves with dao’s spontaneous unfolding, engaging actively in its rhythms while transcending rigid categories of thought. Therefore, zhenzhi is a union of being and knowing, as defined by Yang Guorong in his notion of “knowledge of comprehending dao” (Yang 2017, p. 106). Such knowledge is beyond abstract understanding, requiring an instant, lived sense of dao. It is not a question that can be thought of or verbalized, but one of fundamental change in the self, where the boundaries between self and world dissolve. In this state, individuals do not merely see dao as external to themselves but actively join in its ever-changing transformations and become attuned to the changing rhythms of life.

The existential realization of Zhuangzi’s philosophy finds expression in the figure of zhenren, or true person, who embodies the principles of zhenzhi. Zhuangzi closely associates these two concepts, positing that only such a person—having achieved complete harmony with dao—can fully embody this profound knowledge. The Zhuangzian true person transcends the constraints of ego, societal roles, and conventional identities. This is an ideal character that reflects effortless spontaneity, humility, and receptiveness to the world’s complexity with evenness and equanimity. In this state, perceptions and worldly interactions are unrestrained by conditions fashioned by artifice for the advent of zhenzhi in the natural course. Zhenren’s actions are characterized by wuwei (non-action), reflecting a mode of engagement that is free from coercion or contrivance. The true person, contrary to common misconceptions about detachment, is not a recluse who withdraws from society but engages with it in a manner that is attuned to the rhythms of dao. In the Da Zongshi 大宗師 (The Great Exemplary Teacher) chapter, the zhenren appears as a person who transcends societal divisions and individual accomplishments and remains equanimous amidst existential uncertainties. They do not oppose minorities or boast of achievements; neither do they anxiously anticipate birth nor fear death. Instead, the true person approaches life with an open heart, accepting whatever comes with delight and without scheming. This attitude reflects their embodiment of dao: they resist neither the flow of life nor the intrusion of human effort into the natural course of things, allowing events to unfold without attachment. This state of detachment, far from implying indifference or disengagement, represents a profound and dynamic engagement with the world. By transcending personal ambitions and societal expectations, the zhenren is in accord with the natural course of dao, living its principles in action and mind. In living harmoniously with dao, the true person becomes its living manifestation, demonstrating that the attainment of zhenzhi is not merely an intellectual understanding but is deeply embedded in one’s entire way of being.

Zhuangzi’s philosophy provides a profound approach to attaining zhenzhi and becoming a zhenren by emphasizing experiential understanding over traditional cognitive methods. Crucially, Zhuangzi advocates embracing paradox and fluidity, encouraging individuals to transcend rigid dogmatism and accept the inherent contradictions of reality. This perspective aligns with the metaphysical wisdom of dao, as Yang Guorong suggests, revealing the interconnectedness and underlying unity of all existence (Yang 2017, p. 111). True knowledge, then, according to Zhuangzi, means discarding false distinctions and perceiving universal interconnection in everything. It promotes a form of humility, adaptability, and susceptibility to varied accounts of things, which will serve an individual in navigating the complexity of the world. Most at the center of it is the understanding and deployment of ming 明 (illumination or clarity). It involves recognizing the provisional and context-dependent nature of distinctions, such as shi-fei 是非 (this and not-this), and embracing the multiplicity of perspectives available in any situation. In the Qiwu lun chapter, Zhuangzi objects to Confucian and Mohist rigid shi-fei distinctions and states that these categorical fixes are a function of subjectivity and local views and are not universally true. He presents the metaphor of daoshu 道樞 (pivot of dao) as an alternative approach. This dynamic center allows individuals to respond fluidly to ever-changing circumstances, transcending fixed perspectives and perceiving the interconnectedness of all viewpoints. Zhuangzi’s ethics reject the imposition of universal principles, emphasizing instead the dynamic and contextual interplay of perspectives. The Dechong Fu 德充符 (The Sign of Virtue Complete) chapter encapsulates this insight with the assertion that “looked at from the point of view of their sameness, all things are one” (Ziporyn 2020, p. 46). By dissolving oppositional distinctions, Zhuangzi highlights their interdependence as complementary aspects of a greater whole, fostering an ethical awareness rooted in inclusivity and compassion. This holistic approach allows individuals to navigate complexity with clarity and adaptability, embracing the multiplicity of perspectives that constitute reality.

In Zhuangzi’s approach to cultivation, achieving zhenzhi is fundamentally reliant on the process of wang 忘 (forgetting). Zhuangzi conceptualizes wang as an act of unlearning, rather than the mere erasure of knowledge. It involves letting go of socially constructed distinctions, deeply ingrained beliefs, and rigid intellectual frameworks that distort one’s perception of reality. By shedding these artificial constructs, individuals can cultivate a clearer, more authentic understanding of the world, free from the constraints of conventional thought. This is not passive but an intentional and active elimination of mental and emotional debris to bring about receptivity and openness to dao. Importantly, forgetting liberates the individual from the restrictive power of accumulated knowledge and habitual judgments, fostering a state of simplicity and authenticity that aligns with the dao’s natural flow. Keqian Xu highlights the precedence of forgetting in the pursuit of zhenzhi. Forgetting enables one to transcend ego-imposed distortions, presuppositions, and artificial constructs of human society and to see reality in its unadulterated form (K. Xu 2022). This transformative process is closely similar to the Daoist practice of wuwei (non-action or effortless action). Far from implying passivity or inaction, wuwei refers to acting in accordance with dao’s natural spontaneity, free from contrived effort or self-centered will. The metaphor of xinzhai (fasting the heart-mind), previously discussed, vividly illustrates this process of forgetting. By emptying the mind of attachments, habitual preoccupations, and rigid conceptual frameworks, one becomes profoundly receptive to dao’s spontaneous unfolding. This emptiness is not absence or negation but an open state that allows adaptive and harmonious exchange with the world. As this practice deepens, the distinction between self and dao begins to fade, culminating in a state of non-dual coalescence. In this awakened condition, the separation between the knower and the known disappears, signifying a profound integration of existence and understanding. Thus, forgetting transcends a mere epistemological exercise; it becomes a transformative practice that fundamentally reshapes one’s way of being. This transformation allows for the realization of zhenzhi as both a mode of knowledge and a way of living in harmony with dao.22

The practice of tidao 體道, or “embodying dao,” complements the discipline of xinzhai and can be regarded as its ultimate purpose. While xinzhai emphasizes mental stillness and detachment as a means of clearing the mind, tidao focuses on achieving a state of spiritual purity and unity with dao. It is a transformative process through which an individual achieves the harmonious integration of their consciousness with dao. Cui Dahua 崔大華 characterizes this process as “rational intuition,” which is a form of understanding that begins with rational awareness but ultimately transcends the confines of analytical and logical reasoning. By means of tidao, one transcends mere intellectual cognition and reaches a deeper, intuitive understanding of dao, harmonizing the self with its natural flow (Cui 1992, pp. 295–98). This embodiment dissolves the boundaries between self and others, enabling a harmonious engagement with reality. It suggests that dao functions as both the origin and the totality of existence, accessible not through conceptualization but through direct, lived experience. Han Linhe 韓林合 also asserts that even though ordinary cognition cannot attain dao immediately, it is far from entirely beyond human understanding. The key to understanding dao lies not in intellectual analysis but in its embodiment—through becoming one with it. This process of embodiment transforms an individual into a zhenren, whose spontaneous grasp of dao constitutes true knowledge (Han 2014, p. 358). Such intuitive understanding is not passive knowing, but one that is actively cultivated by the practice of wuwei. Wuwei is not, as in popular misconceptions, a condition of passive inaction. Rather, it is a deeply engaged and spontaneous way of acting, in which the zhenren acts with ease, in harmony with the natural patterns of the world. Accordingly, the practice of wuwei embodies the responsive, relational nature of zhenzhi or true knowledge, which is achieved in the harmonization of the self in dao.23

The road to zhenzhi is a process of transformation, with the movement of transcending conventional knowledge and engaging in practices for direct, mystical insights. Above all, the process is melting boundaries between self and dao, forming an active union that allows for continuous personal growth, as well as a greater and deeper connection to the world. Progress along this path entails the gradual shedding of accumulated layers of social, emotional, and intellectual conditioning, revealing the innate clarity and purity of the human spirit.24 The transformative journey in Daoist practice culminates in the attainment of a “mirror-like” mind—an ideal state of heightened receptivity and clarity. Such a mind, unadulterated by distortion, prejudice, or bias, pictures the world wide open and in complete transparency, resonating things as they are. This openness makes way for zhenzhi to be attained spontaneously, not from analytic intellect, but from an overwhelming sensitivity to the natural currents and rhythms of dao. This overwhelming resonance in dao makes it possible for the person to transcend the limits of rational thought and enter a state of holistic unity where the self is absorbed into dao. In this state of oneness, the dualities of subject and object, self and others, dissolve. The person becomes an embodiment of dao, living continuously in accord with its unfolding activity. This unity is expressed as an unconscious and spontaneous manner of being, wherein there exists a free and spontaneous harmony with the diverse and ever-changing realities of the world.

6. Conclusions

The philosophy of Zhuangzi provides a rich understanding of the nature of zhi, knowledge or knowing, and how it leads to the achievement of harmony amidst the diversity and complexity of life. Through his nuanced critique of conventional knowledge, Zhuangzi deconstructs rigid epistemological frameworks and challenges binary thinking, presenting instead an adaptive, fluid, and relational understanding of zhi. By distinguishing xiaozhi (lesser knowledge), dazhi (greater knowledge), and zhenzhi (true knowledge), he indicates a way beyond narrow thinking and in accordance with the dynamic, relational current of dao.25 His teaching on xinzhai (fasting of the heart–mind) and the cultivation of emptiness is one of releasing attachments to fixed categorizations and ego-influenced urges, thereby guiding one toward a mode of knowing that observes in spontaneity, harmony, and interconnected relationality.

Most essentially, zhi in Zhuangzi’s thought becomes greater than merely an intellectual tool—it is a transformative process eliminating barriers between others and self, between knowledge and being, ultimately leading to the attainment of zhenzhi and the realization of the zhenren (true person), the Daoist ideal of personality. These ideas challenge conventional constructs of knowledge as static or purely instrumental, highlighting instead the importance of adaptability, inclusivity, and ethical responsiveness in navigating the complexities of existence. In refocusing the interest from competitive and exclusionary uses of knowledge to the synthesizing, fluid, and relational epistemology, Zhuangzi provides an approach to knowing and living in a world of endless transformation that is just as pertinent today as it was in his day. Integrating the observations of Zhuangzi into contemporary discussions enables us to acquire the wisdom needed to address present intricacies. Zhuangzi’s focus on adaptive knowledge and inclusive understanding still brings guidance toward cultivating humility and relational awareness, as well as establishing more empathetic approaches to coexistence in our diverse and interdependent world.