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Advanced Processing Strategy for Functional Polymer Materials

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A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Processing and Engineering".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2025) | Viewed by 9400

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Prof. Dr. Yinghong Chen

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The State Key Laboratory of Polymer Materials Engineering, Polymer Research Institute of Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
Interests: polymer micro-processing; halogen-free flame retardant polymer materials; 3D printing of polymer materials; polymer blending and composite modification
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Dear Colleagues,

With the rapid development of materials sciences, functional polymer materials and products are becoming more significant factors influencing the various high-tech industries and economies of countries. These functional polymer materials are also facilitating the advancement of polymer processing technologies due to their unique multi-functionalities such as thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, electromagnetic shielding, flame retardancy, lubrication, biodegradation, biocompatibility and other physical and chemical properties, as well as their immense application potential. However, the performance and functionality of one polymer material not only depend on its composition and synthesis method but can also rely on the correlated advanced processing strategy. This Special Issue, titled “Advanced Processing Strategy for Functional Polymer Materials”, will delve into how cutting-edge processing technologies such as additive manufacturing (3D printing), microprocessing (including microinjection molding), dynamic injection molding, rotary extrusion, gas-assisted injection molding, ultrasonic-assisted processing, biaxial stretching, multilayer coextrusion, mechanochemical processing, supercritical foaming, and so on can be utilized to achieve high performance and multifunctionality towards polymer materials. The precise manipulation of multiscale structures could significantly influence the optimization and enhancement of the properties and the functionalities of polymer materials. For instance, in lightweight and low-filled polymer parts with high electromagnetic shielding efficiency, the intricate design of macro/microscopic structures and the morphological control of functional filler networks during processing are closely related to the final achieved performance. We firmly believe that with continuous innovations in advanced polymer processing strategies, high-performance and multi-functional polymer materials will play significant roles in interdisciplinary fields, driving technological leaps and societal development.

This Special Issue welcomes (but is not limited to) papers on forward-looking processing strategies for high-performance and multi-functional polymer materials, including cutting-edge polymer processing technologies, multiscale structural regulations on the functional properties of polymers and practical applications.

Prof. Dr. Yinghong Chen
Guest Editor

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Keywords

advanced polymer processing
functional polymer materials
polymer composite
polymer blend
polymer nanocomposite
high performance
multi-functions
multiscale structural control
structure manipulation
additive manufacturing
3D printing
microprocessing
rotary extrusion
foaming
biaxial stretching
multilayer coextrusion

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Related Special Issue

Advanced Processing Strategy for Functional Polymer Materials: 2nd Edition in Polymers

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

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22 pages, 6246 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Structure and Property Evolution of Microinjection Molded PLA/PCL/Bioactive Glass Composite

by Meiqiong Chen, Yinghong Chen, Haihao He, Xinwen Zhou and Ning Chen

Polymers 2025, 17(7), 991; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17070991 - 6 Apr 2025

Viewed by 279

Abstract

In this study, the microinjection molding technology was adopted to prepare polylactic acid (PLA)/polycaprolactone (PCL)/bioactive glass (BG) composites with varying BG contents for biomedical applications. The various measurement techniques, including scanning electronic microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, the water contact angle (WCA) test, the mechanical test, and in vitro biological evaluations, were applied to characterize the above interesting biocomposites. The experimental results show that the extremely strong shear force field generated during the microinjection molding process could induce the in situ formation of micron PCL dispersed phase fibril structures and strongly promote the homogeneous dispersion of micron BG filler particles in the PLA/PCL polymer matrix, which therefore leads to a significant improvement in the specific mechanical property of the PLA/PCL/BG composite. For example, with BG fillers content increasing to 10 wt%, the Young’s modulus of the above obtained PLA/PCL/BG composite could reach 2122.9 MPa, which is 1.47 times higher than that of the unfilled PLA/PCL blend material. In addition, it is also found that under the simulated body fluid (SBF) environment, the incorporated BG fillers in the PLA/PCL polymer matrix could be effectively transformed into hydroxyapatite (HA) components on the treated sample surface, thus being greatly advantageous to enhancing the material’s in vitro bioactivity. Obviously, the microinjection molded PLA/PCL/BG biocomposites could exhibit excellent comprehensive performance, revealing that the microinjection molding processing method could hold great potential in industrialization applications of the resulting biodegradable biomedical materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Processing Strategy for Functional Polymer Materials)

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10 pages, 2185 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Accelerated Storage Induced Structural Evolution in Natural Rubber: A Comparative Study of Two Constant Viscosity Treatment Methods

by Danhua Yun, Wenfeng Peng, Hongtu Lin, Jianhe Liao and Lusheng Liao

Polymers 2025, 17(7), 960; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17070960 - 1 Apr 2025

Viewed by 223

Abstract

In order to compare the effects of current mainstream preparation methods for the constant viscosity natural rubber (CV) on structure during storage, this study used dry-mixing and latex-mixing methods to prepare the CV. The variation in mesostructure and microstructure of the CV prepared by the two constant viscosity treatment methods after accelerated storage for 48 h was analyzed. The result shows that both methods for preparing the CV can keep the macrogel content almost consistent after accelerated storage, while the microgel_>1μ content increased slightly. Meanwhile, both methods for preparing the CV can also stably maintain the molecular weight, the molecular weight distribution, and the shape of molecular chains after accelerated storage. However, the CV prepared by dry-mixing method demonstrated superior constant viscosity performance in Mooney viscosity (ML) and Wallace plasticity (P₀) during accelerated storage. The latex-mixing method for preparing the CV showed better advantage in preserving the number of branches per chain during accelerated storage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Processing Strategy for Functional Polymer Materials)

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13 pages, 2531 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Casein Functionalization Using High-Pressure Homogenization and Emulsifying Salts

by Anthony Fuchs, Danielle Stroinski, Ashley Gruman and Grace Lewis

Polymers 2025, 17(7), 931; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17070931 - 29 Mar 2025

Viewed by 310

Abstract

In milk, casein proteins orientate themselves into spherical micellar structures with hydrophobic casein subtypes concentrated in the core, while hydrophilic casein subtypes populate the exterior. Previous research demonstrated that milk with the addition of emulsifying salts coupled with high-pressure homogenization induced an unprecedented amount of casein micelle dissociation. This research aims to quantify the extent of casein micelle dissociation in diluted skim milk and evaluate the functionality of these proteins following emulsifying salt treatment coupled with high-pressure homogenization. To evaluate the extent of micellar dissociation, dilute skim milk solutions (20% v/v) were prepared with a varying amount of treatment: no processing (control), just emulsifying salts (Treatment E, 100 mM sodium hexametaphosphate), just high-pressure homogenization (Treatment H, at 300 MPa), and EH (a combination of E and H treatments). Samples were then put through varying filter sizes (0.22 µm, 0.05 µm), and the permeates were analyzed using sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. In the control group (20% skim milk), 9.35% ± 2.53% casein protein permeated through a 0.05 µm filter. Alternatively, 93.2% ± 7.71% casein protein was present in EH samples post-filtration through a 0.05 µm filter, demonstrating a significant processing-induced dissociation of casein micelles. A potential benefit to this casein micelle size reduction is the exposure of highly functional hydrophobic subunits from the core of the micelle. In agreement, compared to the control samples, the EH samples had higher foam expansion index values (138.3% ± 12.58% vs. 33.33% ± 14.43% at 0 h), foam stability (113.3% ± 5.774% vs. 21.67% ± 2.887% after 8 h), emulsifying activity (ca. two-fold higher), and interaction with caffeine. These data demonstrate that E, coupled with H, enhances skim milk system functionality, and these changes are likely due to micellar dissociation and protein conformational changes. This work has direct applications in dairy systems (e.g., dairy foams, dairy ingredients) as well as implications for potential processing strategies for other protein-rich systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Processing Strategy for Functional Polymer Materials)

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19 pages, 2134 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impacts of Rotor Design, Screw Design, and Processing Parameters in a Farrel Continuous Mixer

by Mansour Alotaibi and Carol Forance Barry

Polymers 2025, 17(5), 619; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17050619 - 25 Feb 2025

Viewed by 677

Abstract

Continuous mixers, which consist of a section with non-intermeshing counter-rotating rotors and a single-screw extruder, were developed for thermoset rubber and are often used for compounding of heavily filled thermoplastics. Due to the high mixing efficiency and tight control of shear levels, they may be suited for other compounding other material systems. Little work, however, has been reported on compounding with these mixers, and preliminary work with polypropylene showed interesting limitations of the mixing parameters. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of nine rotor designs, two single-screw designs, rotor speed, feed rate, and orifice setting on the residence time and melt temperature in a Farrel Compact Processor. In general, single-stage rotors produced lower mixer residence times and melt temperatures compared to longer two-stage and high dispersion rotors. Higher rotor speeds and feed rates and smaller orifice openings generally reduced mixer residence times. Higher rotor speeds increased mixer melt temperatures, whereas higher feed rates and smaller orifice openings produced lower mixer melt temperatures. The single-screw design impacted the residence time but not the melt temperature. Overall, the results of this work provided strategies for optimizing the processing parameters and rotor design selection when melt compounding with continuous mixers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Processing Strategy for Functional Polymer Materials)

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18 pages, 3170 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Metal Interactions with Released Polysaccharides from Cyanothece sp. CE4: A Chemical and Spectroscopic Study on Biosorption Mechanism

by Matilde Ciani, Giovanni Orazio Lepore, Alessandro Puri, Giorgio Facchetti and Alessandra Adessi

Polymers 2025, 17(3), 371; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17030371 - 29 Jan 2025

Viewed by 632

Abstract

This study investigates the potential of released polysaccharides (RPS) from the halophilic cyanobacterium Cyanothece sp. CE4 as biosorbents for heavy metals, specifically copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn). By combining ICP-OES, SEM-EDX, FT-IR spectroscopy, and XAS techniques, this work provides a comprehensive chemical and spectroscopic analysis of the biosorption mechanisms driving metal removal. The results revealed a strong binding affinity for Cu, followed by Ni and Zn, with RPS functional groups playing a key role in metal coordination. The RPS efficiently removed metals from both monometallic and multimetallic solutions, emphasizing their adaptability in competitive environments. XAS analysis highlighted unique metal-specific coordination patterns. Ni preferentially binds to oxygen donors and Zn to chlorine, and Cu exhibits non-selective binding. Remarkably, the extracted RPS achieved a maximum Cu removal capacity of 67 mg per gram of RPS dry weight, surpassing previously reported biosorption capacities. This study not only advances the understanding of biosorption mechanisms by cyanobacterial RPS but also emphasizes their dual role in environmental remediation and circular resource management. The insights provided here establish a foundation for the development of sustainable, cyanobacteria-based solutions for heavy-metal recovery and environmental sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Processing Strategy for Functional Polymer Materials)

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17 pages, 3866 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Characterization of Cardanol Bio-Based Epoxy Resin Blends: Effect of Different Bio-Contents

by Andrea Iadarola, Pietro Di Matteo, Raffaele Ciardiello, Francesco Gazza, Vito Guido Lambertini, Valentina Brunella and Davide Salvatore Paolino

Polymers 2025, 17(3), 296; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17030296 - 23 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 845

Abstract

This study investigates the impact of an increased bio-content on the mechanical properties of bio-based epoxy resins. Cardanol-based epoxy and novolac resins (65% and 84% bio-content, respectively) were combined with two commercial cardanol-based epoxy systems to achieve higher total bio-contents. Quasi-static tensile tests showed that resin blends with up to 40% bio-content maintain tensile properties comparable to traditional formulations, with a glass transition temperature (T_g) suitable for automotive requirements. The results highlight that an increased bio-content enhances flexibility and viscoelastic behavior. Additionally, the tests showed that epoxy resins with a high bio-content represent a sustainable alternative with reduced environmental impact. This work benchmarks novel cardanol-based epoxy formulations with existing bio-based systems, supporting their industrial application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Processing Strategy for Functional Polymer Materials)

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17 pages, 26057 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Staggered Design of UV–Curable Polymer Microneedle Arrays with Increased Vertical Action Space

by Baoling Jia, Tiandong Xia, Yangtao Xu and Bei Li

Polymers 2025, 17(1), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17010104 - 2 Jan 2025

Viewed by 776

Abstract

Recent studies have identified microneedle (MN) arrays as promising alternatives for transdermal drug delivery. This study investigated the properties of novel staggered MN arrays design featuring two distinct heights of MNs. The staggered MN arrays were precisely fabricated via PμSL light-cured 3D printing technology. The arrays were systematically evaluated for their morphology, fracture force, skin penetration ability, penetration mechanism, and drug delivery capability. The results demonstrated that the staggered MN arrays punctured the skin incrementally, leveraging the benefits of skin deformation during the puncture process. This approach effectively reduced the puncture force needed, achieving a maximum reduction of approximately 80.27% due to variations in the staggered height. Additionally, the staggered design facilitated skin penetration, as confirmed by the results of the rat skin hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) staining experiments. Compared with 3D-printed planar structures and highly uniform MN arrays, the staggered design exhibited enhanced hydrophilicity, as evidenced by a reduction in the contact angle from approximately 93° to 70°. Simulated drug release images of both coated and hollow staggered MNs illustrated the release and delivery capabilities of these structures across various skin layers, and the staggered design expanded the effective area of the MN arrays within the vertical dimension of the skin layers. This study offers both experimental and theoretical foundations for developing MN arrays with three–dimensional structural distributions, thereby facilitating advancements in MN array technology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Processing Strategy for Functional Polymer Materials)

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13 pages, 5083 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fused Filament Fabrication of Slow-Crystallizing Polyaryletherketones: Crystallinity and Mechanical Properties Linked to Processing and Post-Treatment Parameters

by Lucía Doyle, Xabier Pérez-Ferrero, Javier García-Molleja, Ricardo Losada, Pablo Romero-Rodríguez and Juan P. Fernández-Blázquez

Polymers 2024, 16(23), 3354; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16233354 - 29 Nov 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 966

Abstract

Recent advancements in thermoplastics within the polyaryletherketone (PAEK) family have enhanced additive manufacturing (AM) potential in fields like aerospace and defense. Polyetheretherketone (PEEK), the best-studied PAEK, faces limitations in AM due to its fast crystallization, which causes poor inter-filament bonding and warping. This study investigated alternative, slow-crystallizing PAEK polymers: polyetherketoneketone (PEKK-A) and AM-200, a PEEK-based copolymer. Both can be printed in an amorphous state and then annealed to improve crystallinity and mechanical properties. Despite their potential, these materials have been minimally explored for AM. Our analysis compared the mechanical performance of as-printed and annealed samples and showed that slow-crystallizing PAEKs outperform fast-crystallizing PEEK. As-printed PEKK-A and AM-200 parts reached tensile strengths of 69 MPa and 47 MPa, respectively, which are about 80% of the values for injection-molded parts. In contrast, PEEK achieves only 25% due to poor inter-layer bonding. Annealing increased crystallinity (15.7% for PEKK-A, 19% for AM-200), simultaneously leading to a coalescence of smaller pores into larger ones, which affected mechanical integrity. Annealing strengthened the printed filament direction, while Z-direction strength remained limited by interlayer adhesion. Our work provides new insights into optimizing these relationships to expand the applicability of PAEK in additive manufacturing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Processing Strategy for Functional Polymer Materials)

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14 pages, 1660 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antibacterial, Transparency, and Mechanical Properties of Cationic Radical Initiator Triggered Polystyrene Sheets Obtained by Thermal Blending

by Hiroki Maruyama, Akihiro Kishi, Yuki Konoeda, Hiroshi Ito and Toshikazu Tsuji

Polymers 2024, 16(22), 3167; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16223167 - 13 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1436

Abstract

Polystyrene (PS) is widely used because of its transparency, mechanical strength, and ease of production. With rising health concerns, antibacterial PS is increasingly sought after, but few polymer-based antibacterial agents have been prepared to date. In this study, polystyrene was synthesized using a cationic radical initiator, 2,2′-azobis-[2-(1,3-dimethyl-4,5-dihydro-1H-imidazol-3-ium-2-yl)] propane triflate (ADIP), and evaluated as an antibacterial additive. The PS polymerized with ADIP (ADIP-PS) was prepared with number-average molecular weights (M_n) from 15,000 to 40,000. Further, blending 5–10% ADIP-PS with an M_n of 23,000 into general-purpose polystyrene (GPPS) provided antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus while maintaining the transparency and strength of GPPS. Surface analysis revealed hydrophilic properties and exposed cationic groups, as confirmed by contact angle measurement and anionic dye titration, respectively. In addition, the antibacterial activity increased with higher cationic group concentrations, particularly at lower molecular weights. This method presents a promising approach to introducing antibacterial properties to PS products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Processing Strategy for Functional Polymer Materials)

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14 pages, 5649 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Temperature Control and Rotational and Traverse Speeds on the Mechanical Properties of Friction Stir-Welded Polypropylene Plates

by Miguelangel Balaguera, Habib R. Zambrano, Ramiro J. Chamorro Coneo, Juan Felipe Santa Marín and Jimy Unfried-Silgado

Polymers 2024, 16(22), 3110; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16223110 - 5 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1107

Abstract

In the present study, the effects of temperature and rotational and traverse speeds on the mechanical properties of polypropylene joints that are welded by friction stir welding using a non-rotational shoulder and a heat-assisted welding process is investigated. Tensile properties, microhardness measurements, microscopy observations, and thermal analysis are carried out in the present research to evaluate the effect of the welding parameters on the mechanical properties of welded joints. The experiments are conducted and analyzed by means of a central composite design using an analysis of variance (ANOVA). Variations in pre-heating temperature from 60 °C to 80 °C, rotational speed from 800 to 1500 rpm, and traverse speed from 20 mm/min to 100 mm/min are made for observations. A remarkable joint efficiency of 94% is achieved with joints that are free of discontinuities and defects. The fractured surfaces are observed to identify ductile and brittle zones. The crystallinity is measured, and a correlation between crystallinity and joint strength is discussed. The sample with highest efficiency shows 65% crystallinity and a ratio of 37.9% of ductile zone–total fractured area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Processing Strategy for Functional Polymer Materials)

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Review

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40 pages, 2566 KiB

Open AccessReview

Exploring the Sustainable Utilization of Deep Eutectic Solvents for Chitin Isolation from Diverse Sources

by Rou Li, Peng-Hui Hsueh, Siti Ayu Ulfadillah, Shang-Ta Wang and Min-Lang Tsai

Polymers 2024, 16(22), 3187; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16223187 - 16 Nov 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1612

Abstract

Deep eutectic solvents (DES) represent an innovative and environmentally friendly approach for chitin isolation. Chitin is a natural nitrogenous polysaccharide, characterized by its abundance of amino and hydroxyl groups. The hydrogen bond network in DES can disrupt the crystalline structure of chitin, facilitating its isolation from bioresources by dissolving or degrading other components. DES are known for their low cost, natural chemical constituents, and recyclability. Natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES), a subclass of DES made from natural compounds, offer higher biocompatibility, biodegradability, and the lowest biotoxicity, making them highly promising for the production of eco-friendly chitin products. This review summarized studies on chitin isolation by DES, including reviews of biomass resources, isolation conditions (raw materials, DES compositions, solid–liquid ratios, temperature, and time), and the physicochemical properties of chitin products. Consequently, we have concluded that tailoring an appropriate DES-based process on the specific composition of the raw material can notably improve isolation efficiency. Acidic DES are particularly effective for extracting chitin from materials with high mineral content, such as crustacean bio-waste; for instance, the choline chloride-lactic acid DES achieved purity levels comparable to those of commercial chemical methods. By contrast, alkaline DES are better suited for chitin isolation from protein-rich sources, such as squid pens. DES facilitate calcium carbonate removal through H⁺ ion release and leverage unique hydrogen bonding interactions for efficient deproteination. Among these, potassium carbonate-glycerol DES have demonstrated optimal efficacy. Nonetheless, further comprehensive research is essential to evaluate the environmental impact, economic feasibility, and safety of DES application in chitin production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Processing Strategy for Functional Polymer Materials)

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