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Pathogens
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Epidemiology of Vector-Borne Pathogens
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Epidemiology of Vector-Borne Pathogens

A special issue of Pathogens (ISSN 2076-0817). This special issue belongs to the section "Epidemiology of Infectious Diseases".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 September 2026 | Viewed by 6084

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Iva Christova

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Microbiology, National Center of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, 1504 Sofia, Bulgaria
Interests: clinical microbiology; epidemiology of vector-borne infections; development of molecular and serological diagnostic methods

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Vector-borne infectious diseases are emerging across the world. In recent years, these diseases have attracted great attention, especially from the medical community and public health authorities. Many vector-borne pathogens appeared in new regions in the last two decades. The incidence and distribution of vector-borne infections are changing. The emergence of these diseases appears to be associated with climate change. Global warming increases the risk of acquiring various vector-borne diseases. Interactions among pathogens, hosts, and the environment influence the emergence of vector-borne infections. Environmental, ecological, and demographic factors contribute to the emergence and re-emergence of vector-borne infectious diseases in parallel with the progressive evolution of their aetiological agents. This Special Issue aims to elucidate various epidemiological aspects of different vector-borne diseases. Unpublished data about the distribution and the determinants of these diseases in the population are highly encouraged. We invite you to submit manuscripts that investigate factors that influence the incidence, emergence, and re-emergence of vector-borne infections, and provide new data on their aetiological agents, transmission, outbreak investigations, surveillance, and treatment effects. A proper understanding of epidemiology is crucial for the planning of public health measures and for preventing vector-borne diseases.

Prof. Dr. Iva Christova
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Pathogens is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2200 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • vector-borne infectious diseases
  • epidemiology
  • transmission dynamics
  • disease surveillance

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 7292 KB  
Article
Molecular Detection and Identification of Bacterial Pathogens in Qinghai Province, China
by Didi Zhang, Yihong Ma, Xinyuan Zhao, Huaixing Yang, Xiuping Li, Guanghua Wang, Yong Hu, Shenghua Tang, Rong Li, Shizhen Li, Yingna Jian and Liqing Ma
Pathogens 2026, 15(3), 305; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15030305 - 11 Mar 2026
Viewed by 601
Abstract
As a core pastoral region of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, Qinghai Province faces substantial threats to livestock production from tick-borne diseases. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of six bacterial pathogens in dominant tick species from Qinghai Province, to provide baseline epidemiological data [...] Read more.
As a core pastoral region of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, Qinghai Province faces substantial threats to livestock production from tick-borne diseases. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of six bacterial pathogens in dominant tick species from Qinghai Province, to provide baseline epidemiological data for local tick-borne disease surveillance. A total of 1025 questing ticks were collected from key pastoral regions of Qinghai Province during April to May in 2024 and 2025. All ticks were morphologically identified as belonging to 1 family (Ixodidae), 2 genera, and 4 species. Dermacentor nuttalli was the dominant species with a relative dominance of 66.83% (685/1025, 95% CI: 63.92–69.61%), followed by Haemaphysalis qinghaiensis at 30.83% (316/1025, 95% CI: 28.11–33.69%), Dermacentor silvarum at 1.95% (20/1025, 95% CI: 1.27–2.98%), and Dermacentor niveus at 0.39% (4/1025, 95% CI: 0.15–1.01%). PCR detection was performed for six target pathogens, with an overall Brucella spp. DNA detection rate of 0.78% (8/1025, 95% CI: 0.40–1.53%) and an overall Rickettsia spp. detection rate of 16.29% (167/1025, 95% CI: 14.16–18.67%). Statistical analysis showed that the prevalence of Brucella spp. and Rickettsia spp. differed significantly between the two dominant tick species (Fisher’s exact test/χ2 test, all p < 0.001). No Brucella or Rickettsia pathogens were detected in D. silvarum and D. niveus. Notably, detection of Brucella spp. DNA does not confirm the presence of viable bacteria or tick vector competence. This study fills the regional data gap of tick-borne pathogens in Qinghai, and provides reference for the prevention and control of local tick-borne zoonotic diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology of Vector-Borne Pathogens)
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13 pages, 1338 KB  
Article
A Cross-Sectional Study of Rift Valley Fever Exposure in Humans and Livestock in Southwestern Uganda Using a One Health Approach: Evidence of Elevated Seroprevalence Outside Recognized Outbreak Periods
by Luke Nyakarahuka, Silvia Situma, Raymond Odinoh, Barnabas Bakamutumaho, Carolyne Nasimiyu, Jeanette Dawa, Justine Okello, Honest Kemiyondo, Alex Tumusiime, Mutesi Joanita, Jackson Kyondo, John Kayiwa, David Odongo, Deo Birungi Ndumu, Kariuki M. Njenga and Robert F. Breiman
Pathogens 2026, 15(2), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15020224 - 17 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1236
Abstract
Rift Valley fever (RVF) transmission has intensified in southwestern Uganda since 2016. To quantify human and livestock exposure and associated risks, we conducted a cross-sectional serosurvey in Isingiro, Kabale and Rubanda districts between October and November 2023. A total of 766 humans and [...] Read more.
Rift Valley fever (RVF) transmission has intensified in southwestern Uganda since 2016. To quantify human and livestock exposure and associated risks, we conducted a cross-sectional serosurvey in Isingiro, Kabale and Rubanda districts between October and November 2023. A total of 766 humans and 2383 livestock were sampled and tested for RVF antibodies using ELISA, with structured questionnaires capturing demographic, behavioral and environmental data. Human seroprevalence was 11.5% (88/766), varying by district (13.8% Isingiro, 11.8% Rubanda, 6.8% Kabale; p = 0.04). Independent predictors from the multivariate model included raw-meat consumption (aOR 6.11; 95% CI 1.16–27.80), cattle ownership (aOR 2.33; 95% CI 1.27–4.36), male sex (aOR 1.64; 95% CI 1.02–2.66) and younger age compared with ≥50 years (31–49 years: aOR 2.02; 95% CI 1.20–3.48; 18–30 years: aOR 2.37; 95% CI 1.04–5.14). Herd-level seroprevalence was 42.5% (204/480), associated with cattle presence (aOR 6.48; 95% CI 4.10–10.40), lack of carcass burial (aOR 15.70; 95% CI 4.23–63.60), on-farm slaughter (aOR 2.14; 95% CI 1.21–3.89) and increased mosquito activity (aOR 1.75; 95% CI 1.13–2.73). Animal-level seroprevalence was 14.6% (347/2383), highest in cattle (33.8%), with cattle having markedly higher odds than goats (aOR 6.73; 95% CI 4.96–9.14). These findings demonstrate substantial transmission and highlight cattle-centered interfaces as primary targets for control to humans. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology of Vector-Borne Pathogens)
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14 pages, 1375 KB  
Article
Molecular Detection of Theileria equi, Babesia caballi, and Borrelia burgdorferi Sensu Lato in Hippobosca equina from Horses in Spain
by Abel Dorrego, Sergi Olvera-Maneu, Eduard Jose-Cunilleras, Paloma Gago, Alejandra Raez, Belen Rivera, Ariana Oporto, Sergio Gonzalez and Fatima Cruz-Lopez
Pathogens 2026, 15(1), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15010094 - 15 Jan 2026
Viewed by 830
Abstract
The forest fly (Hippobosca equina) is an obligate haematophagous dipteran insect (order Diptera) that primarily infests horses and may contribute to the circulation of vector-borne pathogens. This study aimed to investigate the presence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., Babesia caballi [...] Read more.
The forest fly (Hippobosca equina) is an obligate haematophagous dipteran insect (order Diptera) that primarily infests horses and may contribute to the circulation of vector-borne pathogens. This study aimed to investigate the presence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., Babesia caballi, and Theileria equi, important vector-borne pathogens of equids, in forest flies collected from horses in endemic areas of Spain. A total of 170 forest flies were collected from 39 equids across four geographical regions in Spain (Segovia, Madrid, Toledo, and Menorca) and blood samples were collected from 27 of these horses. All flies were morphologically and molecularly identified as H. equina, and DNA extracted from flies and equine blood was screened using multiplex real-time and nested PCR, followed by sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. Neither flies nor horses tested positive for A. phagocytophilum, whereas one fly was positive for B. burgdorferi s.l. (0.6%). In contrast, T. equi and B. caballi DNA were detected in 11.2% and 1.2% of flies, respectively, and all positive flies were collected from horses positive for equine piroplasmosis (T. equi/B. caballi infection), with identical 18S rRNA sequences between hosts and flies. Nested PCR showed a higher detection rate than real-time PCR for the detection of these piroplasms in flies and blood samples. These findings provide the first molecular evidence of EP pathogens in H. equina and support further investigation into the epidemiological importance of forest flies in equine pathogen surveillance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology of Vector-Borne Pathogens)
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16 pages, 1951 KB  
Article
Development of a Double-Antigen Sandwich ELISA for Oz Virus and a Seroepidemiological Survey in Wild Boars in Miyazaki, Japan
by Hirohisa Mekata, Mari Yamamoto, Aya Matsuu, Ken Maeda, Haruhiko Isawa, Kentaro Yoshii, Kazumi Umeki and Tamaki Okabayashi
Pathogens 2025, 14(12), 1288; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14121288 - 14 Dec 2025
Viewed by 788
Abstract
Oz virus, an emerging tick-borne thogotovirus, has been reported to cause fatal human infection in Japan. However, its ecology and geographic distribution remain largely unknown. In this study, we developed a double-antigen sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (DAgS ELISA) for detecting Oz virus antibodies [...] Read more.
Oz virus, an emerging tick-borne thogotovirus, has been reported to cause fatal human infection in Japan. However, its ecology and geographic distribution remain largely unknown. In this study, we developed a double-antigen sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (DAgS ELISA) for detecting Oz virus antibodies in animals and used it to conduct a seroepidemiological survey of wild boars (Sus scrofa) in Miyazaki Prefecture, Japan. Recombinant Oz virus nucleoprotein was expressed in E. coli and used as both the capture and detection antigen. Relative to the neutralization test, the DAgS ELISA showed a sensitivity of 72.2%, a specificity of 88.2%, and an overall concordance rate of 79.0%. We used this assay to examine 1045 wild boar serum samples collected between November 2022 and May 2025, finding a seroprevalence of 33.5%. The seroprevalence did not significantly differ by sex, age, or region, but showed significant seasonal variation, peaking in summer (p < 0.0001). Oz virus RNA was detected by quantitative RT-PCR in one serum sample (0.09%). Phylogenetic analysis of the partial Oz virus glycoprotein gene showed that this strain shared 98.8% nucleotide identity with the EH8 strain, which was the first Oz virus isolate obtained from ticks in Ehime Prefecture. These findings suggest that wild boars in Miyazaki are frequently exposed to Oz virus and that ticks in the region harbor the virus. However, no human cases have been reported to date. The DAgS ELISA developed in this study provides a practical tool for serological surveillance in animals. Continuous monitoring of animal populations is warranted to clarify the epidemiology of Oz virus in the region and to identify potential reservoir species. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology of Vector-Borne Pathogens)
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Review

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27 pages, 19107 KB  
Review
Zika Virus: A Tale of Two Lineages
by Inès Bribes and Sébastien Nisole
Pathogens 2025, 14(11), 1151; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14111151 - 12 Nov 2025
Viewed by 2052
Abstract
Zika virus (ZIKV) was first identified in Africa in the mid-20th century and circulated for decades with limited and often unnoticed human cases. This situation changed with the emergence of the Asian lineage, responsible for large outbreaks in the Pacific and the Americas [...] Read more.
Zika virus (ZIKV) was first identified in Africa in the mid-20th century and circulated for decades with limited and often unnoticed human cases. This situation changed with the emergence of the Asian lineage, responsible for large outbreaks in the Pacific and the Americas and for severe complications such as Guillain–Barré syndrome and Congenital Zika Syndrome (CZS). In contrast, the African lineage, although frequently more efficient in replication, cytopathogenicity, and mosquito transmission in experimental systems, has not been linked to comparable epidemics or congenital disease clusters. This review summarizes current knowledge on the differences between African and Asian lineages at the molecular, cellular, and epidemiological levels. It highlights how genetic variation interacts with host immunity, ecological factors, and human activity to shape epidemic potential. Understanding these interactions is essential for anticipating future outbreaks and for improving strategies to mitigate the impact of emerging arboviruses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epidemiology of Vector-Borne Pathogens)
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