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Marine Drugs
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Tetrodotoxin: Chemistry, Toxicity, Source, Distribution and Detection
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Tetrodotoxin: Chemistry, Toxicity, Source, Distribution and Detection

A special issue of Marine Drugs (ISSN 1660-3397).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2020) | Viewed by 15951

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Ana G Cabado

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
ANFACO CECOPESCA, Carretera Colexio Univ 16, Vigo 36310, Pontevedra, Spain
Interests: Marine Toxins; Food Safety; chemical; biological contaminants
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Jorge Lago

E-Mail Website
Co-Guest Editor
ANFACO CECOPESCA, Carretera Colexio Univ 16, Vigo 36310, Pontevedra, Spain
Interests: Marine Toxins; Food Safety; Food microbiology; Laboratory animals welfare

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Tetrodotoxin (TTX), a natural toxin exhibiting extreme neurotoxicity, was traditionally considered to be restricted to warm water in Asian countries. Evidence shows that risk is also present in the Pacific, Mediterranean, and European waters. In addition, few studies have been conducted on the presence of TTX in marine species other than fish from the Tetraodontidae family. Increasing interest in this potent neurotoxin has led to findings in different fishery species (fish, bivalves, and gastropods) from Europe, New Zealand, and China. Changing climate conditions and imminent increases in sea surface temperatures of coastal waters in many locations around the world have triggered the need to monitor TTX. Data regarding the incidence of this toxin in locations where this toxin was not included in the monitoring plans are needed in order to perform an appropriate risk assessment. The origins of TTX remain controversial: Bacteria from the genera Vibrio, Alteromonas, Shewanella, Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Aeromonas have been identified as causative agents of this potent toxin. Moreover, links between the detection of TTX and the occurrence of dinoflagellates such as Prorocentrum minutum or Alexandrium have been suggested. The analytical methodology “revolution” will allow detection in situ of this dangerous toxin with user-friendly devices allowing to obtain rapid results.

Dr. Ana G Cabado
Dr. Jorge Lago
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Marine Drugs is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2900 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Tetrodotoxin origins
  • Tetrodotoxin detection
  • Tetrodotoxin occurrence/distribution
  • Tetrodotoxin toxicity

Published Papers (5 papers)

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20 pages, 4091 KiB  
Article
Distribution of Tetrodotoxin in Pacific Oysters (Crassostrea gigas)
by Monika Dhanji-Rapkova, Andrew D. Turner, Craig Baker-Austin, Jim F. Huggett and Jennifer M. Ritchie
Mar. Drugs 2021, 19(2), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/md19020084 - 02 Feb 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3216
Abstract
A potent and heat-stable tetrodotoxin (TTX) has been found to accumulate in various marine bivalve species, including Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas), raising a food safety concern. While several studies on geographical occurrence of TTX have been conducted, there is a lack [...] Read more.
A potent and heat-stable tetrodotoxin (TTX) has been found to accumulate in various marine bivalve species, including Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas), raising a food safety concern. While several studies on geographical occurrence of TTX have been conducted, there is a lack of knowledge about the distribution of the toxin within and between bivalves. We, therefore, measured TTX in the whole flesh, mantle, gills, labial palps, digestive gland, adductor muscle and intravalvular fluid of C. gigas using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Weekly monitoring during summer months revealed the highest TTX concentrations in the digestive gland (up to 242 µg/kg), significantly higher than in other oyster tissues. Intra-population variability of TTX, measured in the whole flesh of each of twenty animals, reached 46% and 32% in the two separate batches, respectively. In addition, an inter-population study was conducted to compare TTX levels at four locations within the oyster production area. TTX concentrations in the whole flesh varied significantly between some of these locations, which was unexplained by the differences in weight of flesh. This is the first study examining TTX distribution in C. gigas and the first confirmation of the preferential accumulation of TTX in oyster digestive gland. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin: Chemistry, Toxicity, Source, Distribution and Detection)
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6 pages, 636 KiB  
Article
Stable Tetrodotoxin Production by Bacillus sp. Strain 1839
by Daria I. Melnikova, Anna E. Vlasenko and Timur Yu. Magarlamov
Mar. Drugs 2019, 17(12), 704; https://doi.org/10.3390/md17120704 - 13 Dec 2019
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3147
Abstract
For the first time, tetrodotoxin (TTX) was detected in a bacterial strain after five years of cultivation in laboratory conditions since its isolation from the animal host. A reliable method suitable for bacterial samples, high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry, was used [...] Read more.
For the first time, tetrodotoxin (TTX) was detected in a bacterial strain after five years of cultivation in laboratory conditions since its isolation from the animal host. A reliable method suitable for bacterial samples, high-performance liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry, was used for toxin detection in spore and vegetative cultures of Bacillus sp. 1839. TTX was detected in a spore culture of the strain. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin: Chemistry, Toxicity, Source, Distribution and Detection)
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12 pages, 1095 KiB  
Article
A Microencapsulation Method for Delivering Tetrodotoxin to Bivalves to Investigate Uptake and Accumulation
by Laura Biessy, Kirsty F. Smith, Susanna A. Wood, Annabel Tidy, Roel van Ginkel, Joel R. D. Bowater and Ian Hawes
Mar. Drugs 2021, 19(1), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/md19010033 - 13 Jan 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3208
Abstract
Most marine biotoxins are produced by microalgae. The neurotoxin tetrodotoxin (TTX) has been reported in many seafood species worldwide but its source is unknown, making accumulation and depuration studies in shellfish difficult. Tetrodotoxin is a water-soluble toxin and cannot be directly ingested by [...] Read more.
Most marine biotoxins are produced by microalgae. The neurotoxin tetrodotoxin (TTX) has been reported in many seafood species worldwide but its source is unknown, making accumulation and depuration studies in shellfish difficult. Tetrodotoxin is a water-soluble toxin and cannot be directly ingested by shellfish. In the present study, a method was developed which involved binding TTX to solid particles of humic acid and encapsulating them in agar-gelatin capsules. A controlled quantity of TTX-containing microcapsules (size range 20–280 μm) was fed to Paphies australis, a bivalve known to accumulate TTX in the wild. The TTX-containing microcapsules were fed to P. australis every second day for 13 days. Ten P. australis (including five controls fed non-toxic microalgae) were harvested after 7 days and ten after 13 days. Paphies australis accumulated TTX, reaching concentrations of up to 103 µg kg−1 by day 13, exceeding the European Food Safety Authority recommended concentration of 44 μg kg−1 in shellfish. This novel method will allow future studies to explore the effects, accumulation and depuration rates of TTX in different animals and document how it is transferred through food webs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin: Chemistry, Toxicity, Source, Distribution and Detection)
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17 pages, 2907 KiB  
Article
The Microbial Community of Tetrodotoxin-Bearing and Non-Tetrodotoxin-Bearing Ribbon Worms (Nemertea) from the Sea of Japan
by Daria I. Melnikova and Timur Yu. Magarlamov
Mar. Drugs 2020, 18(3), 177; https://doi.org/10.3390/md18030177 - 23 Mar 2020
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2652
Abstract
A potent marine toxin, tetrodotoxin (TTX), found in a great variety of marine and some terrestrial species, leaves intriguing questions about its origin and distribution in marine ecosystems. TTX-producing bacteria were found in the cultivable microflora of many TTX-bearing hosts, thereby providing strong [...] Read more.
A potent marine toxin, tetrodotoxin (TTX), found in a great variety of marine and some terrestrial species, leaves intriguing questions about its origin and distribution in marine ecosystems. TTX-producing bacteria were found in the cultivable microflora of many TTX-bearing hosts, thereby providing strong support for the hypothesis that the toxin is of bacterial origin in these species. However, metagenomic studies of TTX-bearing animals addressing the whole microbial composition and estimating the contribution of TTX-producing bacteria to the overall toxicity of the host were not conducted. The present study is the first to characterize and compare the 16S rRNA gene data obtained from four TTX-bearing and four non-TTX-bearing species of marine ribbon worms. The statistical analysis showed that different nemertean species harbor distinct bacterial communities, while members of the same species mostly share more similar microbiomes. The bacterial species historically associated with TTX production were found in all studied samples but predominated in TTX-bearing nemertean species. This suggests that deeper knowledge of the microbiome of TTX-bearing animals is a key to understanding the origin of TTX in marine ecosystems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin: Chemistry, Toxicity, Source, Distribution and Detection)
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17 pages, 3524 KiB  
Article
Temporal Variation of the Profile and Concentrations of Paralytic Shellfish Toxins and Tetrodotoxin in the Scallop, Patinopecten yessoensis, Cultured in a Bay of East Japan
by Satoshi Numano, Yuta Kudo, Yuko Cho, Keiichi Konoki and Mari Yotsu-Yamashita
Mar. Drugs 2019, 17(12), 653; https://doi.org/10.3390/md17120653 - 21 Nov 2019
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3128
Abstract
Paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) are the major neurotoxic contaminants of edible bivalves in Japan. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) was recently detected in bivalve shellfish around the world, drawing widespread attention. In Japan, high levels of TTX were reported in the digestive gland of the scallop, [...] Read more.
Paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) are the major neurotoxic contaminants of edible bivalves in Japan. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) was recently detected in bivalve shellfish around the world, drawing widespread attention. In Japan, high levels of TTX were reported in the digestive gland of the scallop, Patinopecten yessoensis, in 1993; however, no new data have emerged since then. In this study, we simultaneously analyzed PSTs and TTX in scallops cultured in a bay of east Japan using hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC)-MS/MS. These scallops were temporally collected from April to December 2017. The highest concentration of PSTs (182 µmol/kg, total congeners) in the hepatopancreas was detected in samples collected on May 23, lined to the cell density of the dinoflagellate, Alexandrium tamarense, in seawater around the scallops, whereas the highest concentration of TTX (421 nmol/kg) was detected in samples collected on August 22. Contrary to the previous report, temporal variation of the PSTs and TTX concentrations did not coincide. The highest concentration of TTX in the entire edible tissues was 7.3 µg/kg (23 nmol/kg) in samples obtained on August 22, which was lower than the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)-proposed threshold, 44 µg TTX equivalents/kg shellfish meat. In addition, 12β-deoxygonyautoxin 3 was firstly identified in scallops. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tetrodotoxin: Chemistry, Toxicity, Source, Distribution and Detection)
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