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A special issue of Insects (ISSN 2075-4450).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 April 2026 | Viewed by 16830

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Dr. Nenad Zaric

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Guest Editor

1. Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology IFA-Tulln, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenzstr 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
2. Faculty of Biology, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
Interests: honey bee; metals; pesticides; metabolism; nutrition; biomonitoring

Prof. Dr. Ljubiša Stanisavljević

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Biology, University of Belgrade, Studentski trg 12-16, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
Interests: bees; apoidea; megachilidae; apivectoring; pollinators; solitary bees

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Pollinator insects, including bees, butterflies, moths, and other important species, play a crucial role in global ecosystems and agriculture by facilitating the reproduction of flowering plants. Despite their importance, many pollinator populations are experiencing unprecedented declines due to habitat loss, pesticide use, climate change, and disease. This Special Issue aims to highlight recent advances in research into the biology, ecology, and conservation strategies of pollinators.

The scope of this Special Issue will cover a range of topics, including the physiological and behavioral adaptations of pollinators, their interactions with plants and other species, their nutrition, and innovative conservation measures that enhance their habitats. We will also explore the use of pollinator insects as biomonitors of environmental pollution, the impact of technological advances in monitoring pollinator health and distribution, as well as the socio-economic impact of pollinator loss on food security and biodiversity.

Dr. Nenad Zaric
Prof. Dr. Ljubiša Stanisavljević
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Insects is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

bees
pollinators
solitary bees
monitoring
wild bees
honey bees
pesticides
metals
nutrition
stressors
biodiversity
pollinator health
behavioral ecology
habitat loss
climate change

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

26 pages, 1953 KB

Open AccessArticle

Diversity Patterns of Insect Assemblages in Tilia cordata Stands in Lithuanian Protected Areas: A Two-Year Study Indicating Modest Support for Pollinator Guilds

by Jūratė Lynikienė, Artūras Gedminas, Rita Verbylaitė, Virgilijus Baliuckas, Valeriia Mishcherikova and Vytautas Suchockas

Insects 2026, 17(4), 360; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17040360 - 25 Mar 2026

Viewed by 319

Abstract

Insects underpin key ecosystem services. Yet tree-associated insect communities remain comparatively poorly documented, particularly in temperate forests. This study aimed to characterize the diversity and abundance of insect assemblages associated with the predominantly insect-pollinated forest tree Tilia cordata Mill. in protected areas in Lithuania, and to assess the occurrence of known and putative pollinator groups within these assemblages. We quantified insect assemblages associated with Tilia cordata using two sampling methods but did not directly measure pollination effectiveness (e.g., pollen loads, visitation rates to flowers, or fruit/seed set). Consequently, our inferences refer to the presence and composition of potential pollinators rather than demonstrated pollination function or realized pollination services. Fieldwork was conducted over two years in six protected T. cordata sites in Lithuania using two complementary sampling methods: net sampling and sticky traps. Sampling was structured into three observation periods corresponding to T. cordata phenology: pre-flowering (I), flowering (II) and post-flowering (III). In total, 207 insect taxa from 15 orders were recorded by net sampling and 86 taxa from 11 orders by sticky traps. Net sampling showed significantly higher diversity (Shannon H = 3.81) than sticky traps (H = 2.10). Hemiptera, Coleoptera and Diptera were the most common groups, and most taxa occurred at low to moderate abundances, with only a few species showing local dominance in specific periods or sites. Taxa documented in the literature as significant pollinators were consistently present but at low relative abundances (about 5–10% in total). Insect assemblage composition and species proportions varied among phenological periods and between years, with no clear, consistent peak in overall insect abundance or diversity associated specifically with the T. cordata flowering phase. These findings indicate that T. cordata stands in protected areas harbor diverse insect assemblages typical of temperate deciduous and mixed forest habitats and include a broad spectrum of non-bees and other potential pollinators. Therefore, we did not detect a distinct peak in insect abundance or species richness during the T. cordata flowering period, indicating that flowering did not coincide with a pronounced maximum in pollinator-related insect activity. However, the quantitative patterns observed suggest that, in this context, T. cordata provides only modest support for pollinator guilds, and its role is better interpreted as one component of wider forest insect diversity rather than as a primary driver of pollination services. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Advances in Pollinator Insects)

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13 pages, 1464 KB

Open AccessArticle

Diversity of Orchid Bees in Mangroves Under Anthropogenic Pressure: A Study in Bay of Panamá and Bay of Chame

by Jeancarlos Abrego, Anette Garrido-Trujillo, José A. Rivera and Alonso Santos Murgas

Insects 2026, 17(1), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17010085 - 13 Jan 2026

Viewed by 573

Abstract

Mangrove ecosystems along the Pacific coast of Panama are increasingly exposed to anthropogenic pressures such as urban expansion and deforestation. These habitats provide resources for orchid bees (tribe Euglossini), yet information on their assemblages in mangrove environments remains limited. In this study, we documented the diversity and composition of orchid bee communities in mangrove–forest edges from two coastal areas with contrasting levels of human disturbance: Panama Bay and Chame Bay. Orchid bee sampling was carried out during two independent periods: from April to July 2022 at three sites in Panama Bay, and from December 2022 to January 2023 at one site in Panama Bay and one site in Chame Bay, using McPhail traps baited with eucalyptus oil and distributed across multiple zones within each site. A total of 427 individuals representing 14 species and three genera were recorded. Observed species richness and abundance were lower at the more urbanized mangrove sites, where collections were dominated by a few widespread species, particularly Eulaema nigrita. Multivariate analyses revealed differences in community composition between sites. These patterns suggest associations between anthropogenic context and orchid bee assemblage structure in mangrove edges, although longer-term and multi-method studies are required to evaluate temporal consistency and underlying mechanisms. This study provides baseline information to support future monitoring of orchid bee communities in tropical coastal ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Advances in Pollinator Insects)

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14 pages, 4811 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Honey Bee Body Surface as a Microbial Hub: Connectivity Shaped by Monoculture vs. Polyculture Farming

by Baobei Guo, Xueyan Yi, Qihang Sun, Ke Sun, Lina Guo and Yuan Guo

Insects 2026, 17(1), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects17010053 - 1 Jan 2026

Viewed by 750

Abstract

Honey bees, as vital pollinators and essential contributors to terrestrial ecosystems, play a critical role in maintaining biodiversity and ecological stability. Beyond their role as pollinators, honey bees are increasingly recognized as bioindicators of environmental health, with their microbiomes reflecting habitat quality, agricultural practices, and broader ecological conditions. This study examines the impact of monoculture and polyculture systems on bee-associated microbiomes, focusing on microbial diversity, composition, and functional roles. Microbial communities from floral surfaces, pollen, nectar, foraging bees, hive matrices, and bioaerosols were analyzed across three agricultural plots: a rape monoculture, a pear monoculture, and a polyculture plot. Using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing, network co-occurrence analysis, and microbial source tracking, the findings reveal that plant species and cultivation methods significantly shape microbial dynamics (Adonis = 0.67 ***). Floral microbiomes exhibit host specificity (Adonis = 0.73 ***), while the honey bee body surface functions as a microbial hub linking environmental, floral, and hive microbial networks (average degree pear: 21.86; rape: 21.96). The polyculture system improves microbial diversity due to the diversity of nectar plants, enhancing ecosystem connectivity and potentially benefiting honey bee health. These results highlight the ecological importance of optimizing agricultural practices to preserve microbial diversity, enhance honey bee health, and maintain ecological stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Advances in Pollinator Insects)

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14 pages, 2035 KB

Open AccessArticle

Formic Acid-Based Preparation in Varroa destructor Control and Its Effects on Hygienic Behavior of Apis mellifera

by Marko Ristanić, Uroš Glavinić, Jevrosima Stevanović, Tamara Cvetković, Aleksa Mijatović, Branislav Vejnović and Zoran Stanimirović

Insects 2025, 16(12), 1236; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16121236 - 6 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1084

Abstract

Varroa destructor remains a major threat to honey bee (Apis mellifera) health, requiring effective and sustainable control strategies. In this study, a formic acid-based product (Formic Pro™) was tested for its varroacidal efficacy and effects on hygienic behavior of honey bee colonies. Sixty hives were assigned to three groups: Formic Pro group (n = 30), Positive control treated with amitraz (n = 15), and untreated Negative control (n = 15). Efficacy was assessed by daily mite drop counts, while hygienic behavior was evaluated before and after treatment using the “pin-killed” brood method. The Formic Pro group achieved a mite mortality rate of 88.37% ± 0.23, while amitraz as a control exerted 94.30% ± 0.95 efficacy. The treatment was well tolerated, with no queen losses, minimal and transient brood effects, followed by brief bearding on the first day of trial. Hygienic behavior significantly increased in the Formic Pro group (PCC from 96.69% to 99.01%, p < 0.001), while it declined in the Negative control and remained unchanged in the Positive control group. These results demonstrate that the tested formic acid-based product provides high acaricidal efficacy which is tolerated well in colonies and that it stimulates a key behavioral defense mechanism through hygienic behavior, providing benefits both for Varroa control and colony resilience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Advances in Pollinator Insects)

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22 pages, 12695 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multidimensional Profiling of Senescence in Eastern Honey Bee, Apis cerana (Hymenoptera: Apidae), Workers: Morphology, Microstructure, and Transcriptomics

by Qiang Ma, Zachary Y. Huang, Qianmin Hai, Jun Zhang, Xiangyou Tang, Xiaoqun Dang, Jinshan Xu, Zhengang Ma and Zeyang Zhou

Insects 2025, 16(9), 902; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16090902 - 28 Aug 2025

Viewed by 1790

Abstract

Worker honey bees are crucial for colony stability and ecosystem pollination. However, the cross-scale aging features and underlying mechanisms in the Eastern honey bee (Apis cerana) remain poorly understood. This study systematically investigated age-related changes in A. cerana workers across youth (1~5 days post-emergence, dpe), middle age (29 dpe), and old age (50 dpe) through integrated morphological, ultrastructural, and transcriptomic analyses. With increasing age, the phenotypic deterioration in the old bees (OBs) was significant: the body color brightness decreased by 16.7% compared to the young bees (YBs) (p < 0.001), and the hair density of the head, thorax, and abdomen declined by 63.5%, 97.2%, and 91.5%, respectively (p < 0.0001). The wing wear index (WWI) increased to 96.7% (p < 0.0001). The locomotor performance declined sharply, with only 6.7% of the OBs successfully reaching the feeding platform within 15 s (p < 0.0001). Ultrastructural analysis revealed sensory organ abrasion, flattened thoracic bristles, thickened cuticle, and 90.4% increased mitochondrial damage (p < 0.0001). The autophagosomes showed dynamic changes, with 81.8% reduction versus those of mid-aged bees (MBs) (p < 0.001), which suggests that mitochondrial dysfunction and autophagy dysregulation may be the core driving factors behind aging. Transcriptomics identified 67 differentially expressed genes enriched in lifespan regulation, glutathione metabolism, and lysosomal pathways. Fifteen key aging-related genes were identified, such as major royal jelly protein 3 (MRJP3), synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2A (SV2A), and apidermin 3 (APD3), whose expression dynamics have been shown to be closely related to nutritional metabolism, behavioral perception, and the decline of epidermal barrier function. This work establishes the first multidimensional aging evaluation system for A. cerana, providing critical insights into bee senescence mechanisms and colony health optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Advances in Pollinator Insects)

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28 pages, 1860 KB

Open AccessArticle

New Regional Species Records for the Moroccan Bee Fauna (Hymenoptera, Apoidea), with a Special Focus on the Marrakesh-Safi Region

by Ayyoub Skaou, Abdessamad Aglagane, Omar Er-Rguibi, Houda Benkhalifa, Ahlam Sentil, Patrick Lhomme, Denis Michez and El Hassan El Mouden

Insects 2025, 16(9), 873; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16090873 - 22 Aug 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1562

Abstract

Although Morocco is a biodiversity hotspot for wild bees, much of its bee fauna remains underexplored. This study aims to enhance knowledge on the regional diversity of Moroccan bees by monitoring wild bee species across nine regions during the 2022–2024 period. A total of 245 bee species—representing 34 genera and 6 families—are documented, accounting for ~25% of the country’s bee species, including 74 species newly recorded at the regional level. We recorded 42 species as new for the Marrakech-Safi region, bringing the total to 597 species and confirming this region as a biodiversity hotspot. New records were also observed in the southern and desert regions, such as Laayoune-Boujdour-Sakia El Hamra and Guelmim-Oued Noun (12 species for each), as well as Dakhla-Oued Ed-Dahab (7 species), highlighting the need for further exploration in these under-sampled areas. The genera Andrena, Lasioglossum, and Eucera were the most diverse, collectively representing 61% of the newly recorded species documented in this study. This research provides valuable insights into the diversity and distribution of Morocco’s bee fauna and calls for standardized monitoring, conservation efforts, and expanded research—particularly in underexplored areas such as the southern regions—to preserve Morocco’s vital bee populations and ensure the sustainability of its agroecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Advances in Pollinator Insects)

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10 pages, 863 KB

Open AccessArticle

FlowerPatch: New Method to Measure Nectar Volume in Artificial Flowers

by Edwin Lara-Perez, Jose Agosto Rivera, Tugrul Giray, Remi Megret Laboye and Edwin Flórez Gómez

Insects 2025, 16(7), 714; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16070714 - 11 Jul 2025

Viewed by 976

Abstract

This article proposes a new Flower Patch Nectar Sensor to address the problem of detecting and measuring nectar in artificial flowers used in experiments on pollinator behavior. Traditional methods have focused mainly on recording the visits of pollinators to the flowers, without addressing the dynamic variations in nectar in terms of volume and concentration. The proposed approach provides more detailed information about the nectar consumption by bees and allows for the determination of the optimal time to refill the flowers. This study introduces an innovative method that uses electrodes and an oscillator circuit to measure the volume of nectar present in the flower. The system correlates the concentration of nectar with a frequency signal that can be processed by a microcontroller. It was evaluated using initial volumes ranging from 1

μ

L to 4

μ

L, demonstrating its ability to accurately detect variations in nectar, even up to the point where the frequency approaches zero. The results confirm that this method allows us to identify how the reward offered to pollinators (represented by nectar) varies over time, in terms of concentration, under both controlled and natural conditions. Additionally, graphs are presented that show the relationship between an initial volume of 4

μ

L and variations in the frequency signal over a period of 25 min, highlighting the influence of these factors on nectar dynamics. This work not only introduces an innovative approach for the dynamic monitoring of nectar in artificial flowers but also lays the groundwork for future studies on the physical and chemical modeling of nectar in response to environmental conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Advances in Pollinator Insects)

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10 pages, 3033 KB

Open AccessArticle

Glycosidase Isoforms in Honey and the Honey Bee (Apis mellifera L.): Differentiating Bee- and Yeast-Derived Enzymes and Implications for Honey Authentication

by Ratko Pavlović, Sanja Stojanović, Marija Pavlović, Nenad Drulović, Miroslava Vujčić, Biljana Dojnov and Zoran Vujčić

Insects 2025, 16(6), 622; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16060622 - 12 Jun 2025

Viewed by 2076

Abstract

The enzymes in honey can originate not only from bees and the plants from which the bees collect pollen and nectar but also from feed provided by beekeepers. Enzymes that hydrolyze sucrose—present in honey (α-glucosidase) or honey adulterated with invert syrup (β-fructofuranosidase)—can be distinguished using zymography, where enzymatic bands are detected with nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT) after sugar removal via ultrafiltration. This method enables the identification of honey produced in hives that have been improperly fed with invert syrup, leading to the mixture of natural honey and syrup, and offers a practical tool to detect indirect adulteration. The NBT assay, in combination with ultrafiltration, was used to determine the isoelectric point of honey bee α-glucosidases. The pI value of 6.63 for isoforms found in the head, midgut, and natural honey extracts during winter can be attributed to α-glucosidase III. Two additional isoforms with isoelectric points of 5.20 and 5.77 were observed in the midgut extract and may correspond to α-glucosidase I and II. The difference between α-glucosidase and β-fructofuranosidase was confirmed using a substrate specificity test, followed by thin-layer chromatography, where it was confirmed that α-glucosidase from natural honey, bee head, and bee midgut does not hydrolyze raffinose, in contrast to yeast β-fructofuranosidase. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Advances in Pollinator Insects)

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15 pages, 2221 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Field Trial to Demonstrate the Potential of a Vitamin B Diet Supplement in Reducing Oxidative Stress and Improving Hygienic and Grooming Behaviors in Honey Bees

by Nemanja M. Jovanovic, Uros Glavinic, Jevrosima Stevanovic, Marko Ristanic, Branislav Vejnovic, Slobodan Dolasevic and Zoran Stanimirovic

Insects 2025, 16(1), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16010036 - 2 Jan 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3399

Abstract

The honey bee is an important insect pollinator that provides critical pollination services for natural and agricultural systems worldwide. However, inadequate food weakens honey bee colonies, making them vulnerable to various biotic and abiotic factors. In this study, we examined the impact of supplementary feeding on bees’ genes for antioxidative enzymes and vitellogenin, oxidative stress parameters, and the hygienic and grooming behavior. The colonies were divided into two experimental groups (with ten hives each): a treatment group that received the plant-based supplement and a control group. The experiment was conducted in two seasons, spring and summer. After the treatment, in both seasons, all the monitored parameters in the treatment group differed from those in the control group. The expression levels of genes for antioxidative enzymes were significantly lower, but the vitellogenin gene transcript level was significantly higher. Values of oxidative stress parameters were significantly lower. The levels of hygienic and grooming behavior were significantly higher. Therefore, our field study indicates that the tested supplement exerted beneficial effects on bees, reflected in reduced oxidative stress and enhanced hygienic and grooming behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Advances in Pollinator Insects)

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15 pages, 5247 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Effects of Disturbance on Plant–Pollinator Interactions in the Native Forests of an Oceanic Island (Terceira, Azores)

by Mário Boieiro, Mariana Ferreira, Ana Ceia-Hasse, Fabiana Esposito, Renata Santos, Gabor Pozsgai, Paulo A. V. Borges and Carla Rego

Insects 2025, 16(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/insects16010014 - 27 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2748

Abstract

The native biodiversity of oceanic islands is threatened by human-driven disturbance and by the growing number of species introductions which often interfere with natural ecological processes. Here, we aim to evaluate the effect of anthropogenic disturbance on plant–pollinator interactions in the native forest communities of an oceanic island (Terceira, Azores, Portugal). We found that native species predominated in preserved sites compared to disturbed ones and that the extant plant–pollinator interactions were mostly dominated by generalist species. Dipterans, particularly hoverflies, emerged as the primary flower visitors, while introduced hymenopterans (Apis mellifera and Bombus terrestris) and native beetles were locally important, respectively, in disturbed and preserved sites. Human-driven disturbance seems to be responsible for the observed differences in flower abundance and species composition between sites and to drive changes in specific network metrics (namely nestedness, interaction strength asymmetry, and specialization), particularly in one of the study areas. Our findings also suggest that native generalist species provide ecological opportunities that can facilitate the establishment of introduced species through their broad interaction networks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Advances in Pollinator Insects)

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