International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

Research

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21 pages, 415 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Do Youth Dream of Gender Stereotypes? The Relationship among Gender Stereotyping, Support for Feminism, and Acceptance of Gender-Based Violence

by Carmen M. Leon and Eva Aizpurua

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(3), 2439; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20032439 - 30 Jan 2023

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 5171

Abstract

Although gender roles have continued to evolve, stereotypical perceptions about men and women persist. From a traditional perspective, men are viewed as aggressive, competitive, and dominant, whereas women are expected to be pretty, affectionate, and passive. The relevance of gender stereotypes lies in [...] Read more.

Although gender roles have continued to evolve, stereotypical perceptions about men and women persist. From a traditional perspective, men are viewed as aggressive, competitive, and dominant, whereas women are expected to be pretty, affectionate, and passive. The relevance of gender stereotypes lies in the way such expectations reinforce gender inequality and discrimination. Gender stereotyping is also linked to an increased acceptance of gender-based violence, as such conceptions are based on the premise that women are subordinate to men. The current study uses data from the Barometer on Youth and Gender, conducted by the Centro Reina Sofía in 2021 (N = 1201), to analyze the potential associations among gender stereotyping, support for feminism, and acceptance of gender-based violence among young people in Spain (15–29 years old). The results show that young people ascribe, to some extent, stereotypical characteristics to women and men and point to the existence of gender-based occupational stereotypes. Our results shed light on the role that gender stereotyping plays in support for feminism and the acceptance of gender-based violence. They also provide valuable information about the magnitude of gender-stereotypical perceptions among young men and women. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Sexualization and Objectification Processes on Well-Being and Mental Health)

29 pages, 1261 KiB

Open AccessArticle

#SexyBodyPositive: When Sexualization Does Not Undermine Young Women’s Body Image

by Daniela Di Michele, Francesca Guizzo, Natale Canale, Fabio Fasoli, Francesca Carotta, Arianna Pollini and Mara Cadinu

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(2), 991; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20020991 - 5 Jan 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6387

Abstract

Research suggests that exposure to social networking sites portraying a thin and often sexualized beauty ideal reduces young women’s body satisfaction, while exposure to body-positive content improves it. However, it is unclear whether sexualization could impair the beneficial effects of body-positivity messages. Young [...] Read more.

Research suggests that exposure to social networking sites portraying a thin and often sexualized beauty ideal reduces young women’s body satisfaction, while exposure to body-positive content improves it. However, it is unclear whether sexualization could impair the beneficial effects of body-positivity messages. Young Italian women were exposed to one of three experimental conditions showing sexualized beauty ideals, sexualized body positivity, or non-sexualized body positivity that appeared either on Instagram (Study 1, N = 356) or TikTok (Study 2, N = 316). Across the two studies, results showed that, regardless of sexualization, exposure to body positivity increased body satisfaction and positive mood compared with pre-exposure measures, while exposure to sexualized beauty ideals reduced it. Participants in the sexualized beauty ideal condition also engaged in upward appearance social comparison whereas body positivity elicited downward comparison. Problematic social networking sites’ use moderated the effects of condition on body satisfaction, appearance social comparison, and positive mood, while downward comparison mediated the relation between condition and body satisfaction and positive mood. Our results highlight both beneficial and critical aspects of body positivity that should be taken into consideration when designing body image interventions and policymaking. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Sexualization and Objectification Processes on Well-Being and Mental Health)

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18 pages, 345 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sexualized Images on Social Media and Adolescent Girls’ Mental Health: Qualitative Insights from Parents, School Support Service Staff and Youth Mental Health Service Providers

by Alana Papageorgiou, Donna Cross and Colleen Fisher

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(1), 433; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010433 - 27 Dec 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 8502

Abstract

This research explored adults’ perceptions of how sexualized images typically found on social media might influence adolescent girls’ mental health, what support girls might need should they experience mental health difficulties, and how such difficulties could be prevented or reduced. Qualitative data were [...] Read more.

This research explored adults’ perceptions of how sexualized images typically found on social media might influence adolescent girls’ mental health, what support girls might need should they experience mental health difficulties, and how such difficulties could be prevented or reduced. Qualitative data were collected using semi-structured in-depth interviews with parents of adolescent girls (n = 11) and those who provide support to them: school support service staff (n = 7) and youth mental health service providers (n = 10) located in Perth, Western Australia. All three participant groups perceived sexualized images typically found on social media as exacerbating poor mental health among adolescent girls. Two interrelated themes, emerged with participants describing the ‘potential for comparison’ and ‘pressure to conform’ they believed girls encounter on social media that influences their mental health. Participants also explained how they perceived ‘counteracting negative influences’ related to sexualized images on social media could prevent or reduce the potential for mental health harms among girls, and the importance of adults and services ‘keeping up to date’ and being ‘approachable and trustworthy’ when describing the support they believed girls might need. The findings of this study have important implications for the development of health promotion programs focused on social media use and mental health among adolescent girls. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Sexualization and Objectification Processes on Well-Being and Mental Health)

10 pages, 364 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Body Shame and Age on Appearance-Based Exercise and Positive Body Image in Women from Poland: Preliminary Results of a Cluster Analysis

by Kamila Czepczor-Bernat

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(23), 15741; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192315741 - 26 Nov 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3427

Abstract

The aim of this study has been to analyse whether body shame and age may play a role in appearance-based exercise and positive body image in Women from Poland. It was assumed that women with high body shame and at the stage of [...] Read more.

The aim of this study has been to analyse whether body shame and age may play a role in appearance-based exercise and positive body image in Women from Poland. It was assumed that women with high body shame and at the stage of young adulthood have significantly greater levels of appearance-based exercise and lower positive body image than those with a low level of body shame and at the stage of middle adulthood. The final sample included 234 Polish women (age: M = 31.58, SD = 13.93; body mass index: M = 23.45, SD = 4.72). Participants completed: the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (OBCS), the Exercise Appearance Motivations Scale (EAMS), the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) and a socio-demographic survey. The cluster analysis technique indicated four distinct clusters: (a) Cluster 1 (N = 83): high body shame and young adulthood; (b) Cluster 2 (N = 29): high body shame and middle adulthood; (c) Cluster 3 (N = 88): low body shame and young adulthood; (d) Cluster 4 (N = 34): low body shame and middle adulthood. The outcomes partially support the hypothesis, as higher levels of almost all subscales related to appearance-based exercise (EAMS: “muscularity”, “societal pressures”, “shape/weight concerns”, “avoidance/shame”) and lower positive body image (BAS-2) were observed in women with high body shame and at the stage of young adulthood compared with women with a low level of body shame and at the stage of middle adulthood. These results indicate that both body shame and age may contribute to the intensity of appearance-based exercise and positive body image deterioration. Clarity on this issue is essential to ensure that an appropriate preventive activity and interventions are made which will be able to take into account the specific sociocultural context in Poland. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Sexualization and Objectification Processes on Well-Being and Mental Health)

18 pages, 390 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Not All That Glitters Is Gold: Attractive Partners Provide Joys and Sorrows

by Anna Cardelli, Camilla Matera, Giulia Rosa Policardo, Cristian Di Gesto and Amanda Nerini

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(20), 13526; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192013526 - 19 Oct 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2314

Abstract

Through a 2 × 2 experimental vignette design, we tested if partner perceived attractiveness in interaction with appearance-related comments from one’s partner might affect women and men’s body dissatisfaction, body shame, acceptance of cosmetic surgery, and perceived relationship quality. Participants were 154 women [...] Read more.

Through a 2 × 2 experimental vignette design, we tested if partner perceived attractiveness in interaction with appearance-related comments from one’s partner might affect women and men’s body dissatisfaction, body shame, acceptance of cosmetic surgery, and perceived relationship quality. Participants were 154 women and 157 men living in Italy (mean age = 30.97; all of them were in a couple relationship), who read a vignette describing the purchase of a swimsuit, through which partner attractiveness (poor versus high) and partner commentary (negative versus positive) were manipulated. Some ANCOVAs were performed on women and men separately. For men, partner commentary affected body dissatisfaction with low body fat. Moreover, the main effect of partner attractiveness was found in their consideration of undergoing cosmetic procedures. Among women, a significant partner attractiveness X partner commentary interaction effect emerged on acceptance of cosmetic surgery for social reasons. As regards relationship quality, for women, there was a main effect of partner attractiveness on relational communication, while a marginally significant interaction effect between partner attractiveness and partner commentary emerged for men’s self-disclosure. Our findings suggest that partner attractiveness is generally beneficial, but when combined with negative feedback concerning the appearance, it might lose its advantages. These findings should be considered for planning interventions aimed at both preventing body dissatisfaction and acceptance of cosmetic surgical procedures for not medical reasons and promoting relationship satisfaction among women and men. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Sexualization and Objectification Processes on Well-Being and Mental Health)

12 pages, 726 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dyadic Predictors of Child Body Shame in a Polish and Italian Sample

by Kamila Czepczor-Bernat, Justyna Modrzejewska, Adriana Modrzejewska, Emanuela Calandri, Silvia Gattino and Chiara Rollero

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(14), 8659; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148659 - 16 Jul 2022

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2500

Abstract

The present study aimed at assessing the predictors (related to the functioning of a parent-child dyad) of child body shame. Therefore, in the main analysis we examined relationships among child body shame, child perfectionism, child body dissatisfaction, parent body shame, parent perfectionism, and [...] Read more.

The present study aimed at assessing the predictors (related to the functioning of a parent-child dyad) of child body shame. Therefore, in the main analysis we examined relationships among child body shame, child perfectionism, child body dissatisfaction, parent body shame, parent perfectionism, and parent body dissatisfaction. In our main hypothesis we assumed that higher levels of the abovementioned parent functioning-related variables would be associated with higher child body shame after accounting for the effects of the foregoing child functioning-related variables. The analysis finally included complete data from 420 participants, i.e., a 115 Polish and 95 Italian parent-child dyad. Participants completed: (a) child: the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale for Youth, the Child-Adolescent Perfectionism Scale, the Children’s Body Image Scale/the Figure Rating Scale; (b) parent: the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale, the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, and the Contour Drawing Rating Scale. The results of a correlational analysis show that in both the Polish and Italian samples, the higher the level of child body shame, the higher the level of the following variables: child perfectionism, child body dissatisfaction, parent perfectionism, and parent body dissatisfaction. Interestingly, the only insignificant relationship in both samples is the association between body shame in both members of the child-parent dyad. Moreover, all steps of the regressions were significant in both Polish and Italian samples. It turned out that only in the Italian sample were all predictors significantly associated with a child’s body shame (in the Polish sample there was no significant association between child’s body shame and parent’s perfectionism). To sum up, the above studies show the importance of considering the functioning of the parent-child dyad in understanding child body shame. These findings suggest that parents’ attitudes toward their bodies and their beliefs about an ideal self should be taken into account when planning interventions to improve children’s and adolescents’ attitudes toward their bodies. This is so because it is possible for children to internalize their parents’ beliefs about how to look and how critical one should be of themselves, which can result in strong body shame when they are not perfect enough against the internalized ideal. Therefore, it is also necessary to make parents aware that children’s attitude toward their body is often a reflection of parents’ attitude toward the body. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Sexualization and Objectification Processes on Well-Being and Mental Health)

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8 pages, 591 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mass Media Beauty Standards, Body Surveillance, and Relationship Satisfaction within Romantic Couples

by Chiara Rollero

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19(7), 3833; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19073833 - 23 Mar 2022

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 8330

Abstract

As part of objectification processes, individuals engage in body surveillance, whereby they constantly assess the extent to which their external appearance conforms to culturally valued ideals. Mass media play a key role in fostering the objectification and internalization of media beauty standards and [...] Read more.

As part of objectification processes, individuals engage in body surveillance, whereby they constantly assess the extent to which their external appearance conforms to culturally valued ideals. Mass media play a key role in fostering the objectification and internalization of media beauty standards and increases body surveillance. At the individual level, the literature has largely demonstrated that body surveillance leads to a variety of negative psychological outcomes, but little research has focused on the consequences of body surveillance in the context of romantic relationships. Using dyadic data from couples who identified as heterosexual, the present study examined relations among internalization of media standards, body surveillance, surveillance of the partner’s body, surveillance from the partner, and relationship satisfaction. There were 438 participants (219 couples) recruited using snowball sampling. They were surveyed with an anonymous online questionnaire. Results showed that internalization of media standards was related to body surveillance in both men and women, and to surveillance of the partner’s body and relationship satisfaction in men only. For both sexes, surveillance of the partner’s body was negatively associated with relationship satisfaction. For women only, surveillance from the partner was also negatively related to relationship satisfaction. Implications are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Sexualization and Objectification Processes on Well-Being and Mental Health)

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Review

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15 pages, 423 KiB

Open AccessReview

Gender and Media Representations: A Review of the Literature on Gender Stereotypes, Objectification and Sexualization

by Fabrizio Santoniccolo, Tommaso Trombetta, Maria Noemi Paradiso and Luca Rollè

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20(10), 5770; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20105770 - 9 May 2023

Cited by 48 | Viewed by 81197

Abstract

Media representations play an important role in producing sociocultural pressures. Despite social and legal progress in civil rights, restrictive gender-based representations appear to be still very pervasive in some contexts. The article explores scientific research on the relationship between media representations and gender [...] Read more.

Media representations play an important role in producing sociocultural pressures. Despite social and legal progress in civil rights, restrictive gender-based representations appear to be still very pervasive in some contexts. The article explores scientific research on the relationship between media representations and gender stereotypes, objectification and sexualization, focusing on their presence in the cultural context. Results show how stereotyping, objectifying and sexualizing representations appear to be still very common across a number of contexts. Exposure to stereotyping representations appears to strengthen beliefs in gender stereotypes and endorsement of gender role norms, as well as fostering sexism, harassment and violence in men and stifling career-related ambitions in women. Exposure to objectifying and sexualizing representations appears to be associated with the internalization of cultural ideals of appearance, endorsement of sexist attitudes and tolerance of abuse and body shame. In turn, factors associated with exposure to these representations have been linked to detrimental effects on physical and psychological well-being, such as eating disorder symptomatology, increased body surveillance and poorer body image quality of life. However, specificities in the pathways from exposure to detrimental effects on well-being are involved for certain populations that warrant further research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Sexualization and Objectification Processes on Well-Being and Mental Health)

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