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Advances in Hydrogen Production and Hydrogen Storage

A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "A5: Hydrogen Energy".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 May 2025 | Viewed by 12673

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Fushou Xie

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Energy and Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China
Interests: hydrogen liquefaction and refrigeration; liquid hydrogen storage and transfer; slush hydrogen production and transfer; thermal insulation systems

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Hydrogen is an energy carrier and a clean fuel that, when fed into a fuel cell, can power vehicles and trucks without releasing harmful emissions. Hydrogen energy, as a clean energy, will play a more important role in the field of new energy vehicles in the context of achieving the goal of carbon peak and carbon neutralization. In addition, liquid hydrogen can be used not only as the propulsion fuel of cryogenic launch vehicles, but also a way to transport hydrogen energy over a long distance.

This Special Issue aims to present and disseminate the most recent advances related to the theory, design, modelling, systems, experiment, application of all types of hydrogen production, hydrogen storage, hydrogen liquefaction, and liquid hydrogen storage.

Topics of interest for publication include, but are not limited to, the following:

  • Hydrogen production;
  • Hydrogen storage;
  • Hydrogen applications;
  • Hydrogen transport and distribution;
  • Hydrogen safety;
  • Hydrogen liquefaction;
  • Liquid hydrogen storage and transfer.

Dr. Fushou Xie
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Energies is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • hydrogen
  • liquid hydrogen
  • hydrogen production
  • hydrogen liquefication
  • hydrogen storage
  • thermal management
  • liquid hydrogen heat and mass transfer

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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21 pages, 4100 KiB  
Article
Multi-Objective Dynamic System Model for the Optimal Sizing and Real-World Simulation of Grid-Connected Hybrid Photovoltaic-Hydrogen (PV-H2) Energy Systems
by Ayatte I. Atteya, Dallia Ali and Nazmi Sellami
Energies 2025, 18(3), 578; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18030578 - 25 Jan 2025
Viewed by 887
Abstract
Hybrid renewable-hydrogen energy systems offer a promising solution for meeting the globe’s energy transition and carbon neutrality goals. This paper presents a new multi-objective dynamic system model for the optimal sizing and simulation of hybrid PV-H2 energy systems within grid-connected buildings. The [...] Read more.
Hybrid renewable-hydrogen energy systems offer a promising solution for meeting the globe’s energy transition and carbon neutrality goals. This paper presents a new multi-objective dynamic system model for the optimal sizing and simulation of hybrid PV-H2 energy systems within grid-connected buildings. The model integrates a Particle Swarm Optimisation (PSO) algorithm that enables minimising both the levelised cost of energy (LCOE) and the building carbon footprint with a dynamic model that considers the real-world behaviour of the system components. Previous studies have often overlooked the electrochemical dynamics of electrolysers and fuel cells under transient conditions from intermittent renewables and varying loads, leading to the oversizing of components. The proposed model improves sizing accuracy, avoiding unnecessary costs and space. The multi-objective model is compared to a single-objective PSO-based model that minimises the LCOE solely to assess its effectiveness. Both models were applied to a case study within Robert Gordon University in Aberdeen, UK. Results showed that minimising only the LCOE leads to a system with a 1000 kW PV, 932 kW electrolyser, 22.7 kg H2 storage tank, and 242 kW fuel cell, with an LCOE of 0.366 £/kWh and 40% grid dependency. The multi-objective model, which minimises both the LCOE and the building carbon footprint, results in a system with a 3187.8 kW PV, 1000 kW electrolyser, 106.1 kg H2 storage tank, and 250 kW fuel cell, reducing grid dependency to 33.33% with an LCOE of 0.5188 £/kWh. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Hydrogen Production and Hydrogen Storage)
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17 pages, 9409 KiB  
Article
Experimental Study and Optimization Analysis of Operating Conditions on Photo-Thermochemical Cycle of Water Splitting for Hydrogen Production Based on CeO2 Catalyst
by Zhiyin Zhang, Huimin Hu, Jie Yang, Zhengguang He, Kai Yan, Tianyu Liu and Chang Wen
Energies 2024, 17(24), 6314; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17246314 - 14 Dec 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 919
Abstract
The photo-thermochemical cycle (PTC) for water splitting offers a sustainable method for hydrogen production by efficiently utilizing solar energy. This study explored the use of CeO2 as a catalyst in the PTC system to enhance hydrogen yield. A nanostructured CeO2 catalyst [...] Read more.
The photo-thermochemical cycle (PTC) for water splitting offers a sustainable method for hydrogen production by efficiently utilizing solar energy. This study explored the use of CeO2 as a catalyst in the PTC system to enhance hydrogen yield. A nanostructured CeO2 catalyst was synthesized via the sol-gel method, achieving an H2 yield of 8.35 μmol g−1 h−1. Stability tests over five cycles showed consistent yields between 7.22 and 8.35 μmol g−1 h−1. Analysis revealed that oxygen vacancies (VOs) increased after the photoreaction and depleted during the thermal reaction, which aligns with the expected PTC mechanism for hydrogen production. Single-factor experiments highlighted that photoreaction duration mainly influenced VOs generation, while thermal duration and temperature impacted VOs consumption and intermediate reaction rates. A response surface methodology (RSM) model predicted optimal conditions for maximum H2 yield (8.85 μmol g−1 h−1) with a photoreaction duration of 46.6 min, thermal duration of 45.4 min, and thermal temperature of 547.2 °C. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Hydrogen Production and Hydrogen Storage)
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17 pages, 2743 KiB  
Article
A Comparison of the Energy Expenditure in Different Storage Tank Geometries to Maintain H2 in the Liquid State
by Joaquim Monteiro, Leonardo Ribeiro, Gustavo F. Pinto, Adélio Cavadas, Beatriz Coutinho and Andresa Baptista
Energies 2024, 17(22), 5557; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17225557 - 7 Nov 2024
Viewed by 821
Abstract
The aim of this paper is the study of the storage of hydrogen in the liquid state, LH2, with a focus on the thermal gains for cylindrical and spherical tank geometries. A given tank volume was assumed; three geometries for such [...] Read more.
The aim of this paper is the study of the storage of hydrogen in the liquid state, LH2, with a focus on the thermal gains for cylindrical and spherical tank geometries. A given tank volume was assumed; three geometries for such a tank were taken, similar to the most common tanks for LH2 storage: cylindrical (vertical and horizontal) and spherical. An integrated refrigeration system was considered for LH2 stored at a temperature around 22 K and at a pressure around 3 bar. Then, the energy expenditure by the refrigeration system to maintain LH2 in the liquid state was determined and compared with the value of the energy contained in the LH2, in order to compare such a storage method to other hydrogen storage methods, namely compressed hydrogen, in the gaseous state. The most important conclusion was that spherical tanks had lower thermal gains than tanks with other geometries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Hydrogen Production and Hydrogen Storage)
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24 pages, 12299 KiB  
Article
DEM-CFD Simulation Analysis of Heat Transfer Characteristics for Hydrogen Flow in Randomly Packed Beds
by Quanchen Zhang, Yongfang Xia, Zude Cheng and Xin Quan
Energies 2024, 17(9), 2226; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17092226 - 5 May 2024
Viewed by 1817
Abstract
In this study, three randomly packed beds with varying tube-to-particle diameter ratios (D/d) are constructed using the discrete element method (DEM) and simulated via CFD under low pore Reynolds numbers (Rep < 100). An innovation of this research lies in the [...] Read more.
In this study, three randomly packed beds with varying tube-to-particle diameter ratios (D/d) are constructed using the discrete element method (DEM) and simulated via CFD under low pore Reynolds numbers (Rep < 100). An innovation of this research lies in the application of hydrogen in randomly packed beds, coupled with the consideration of its temperature-dependent thermal properties. The axial analysis of the heat transfer characteristics shows that PB−5 and PB−6 achieve thermal equilibrium 44% and 58% faster than PB−4, respectively, demonstrating enhanced heat transfer efficiency. However, at higher flow rates (0.8 m/s), the large-sized fluid channels in PB−6 severely impact the heat transfer efficiency, slightly reducing it compared to PB−5. Additionally, this study introduces a localized segmentation method for calculating the axial local Nusselt number, showing that the axial local Nusselt number (Nu) not only exhibits an inverse relationship with the axial porosity distribution, but also matches its amplitude fluctuations. The wall effect significantly impacts the flow and temperature distribution in the packed bed, causing notable velocity and temperature oscillations in the near-wall region. In the near-wall region, the average temperature is lower than in the core region, and the axial temperature profile exhibits more intense oscillations. These findings may provide insights into the use of hydrogen in randomly packed beds, which are vital for enhancing industrial applications such as hydrogen storage and utilization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Hydrogen Production and Hydrogen Storage)
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16 pages, 3496 KiB  
Article
Absorption-Enhanced Methanol Steam Reforming for Low-Temperature Hydrogen Production with Carbon Capture
by Xiao Li, Lingzhi Yang and Yong Hao
Energies 2023, 16(20), 7134; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16207134 - 18 Oct 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2654
Abstract
Methanol is a prospective hydrogen storage medium that holds the potential to address the challenges of hydrogen storage and transportation. However, hydrogen production via methanol steam reforming faces several key obstacles, including high reaction temperature (e.g., 250–300 °C) and low methanol conversion (at [...] Read more.
Methanol is a prospective hydrogen storage medium that holds the potential to address the challenges of hydrogen storage and transportation. However, hydrogen production via methanol steam reforming faces several key obstacles, including high reaction temperature (e.g., 250–300 °C) and low methanol conversion (at <200 °C), while the purification procedure of hydrogen is commonly required to obtain high-purity H2. A novel method of H2 absorption-enhanced steam reforming of methanol is proposed to overcome the challenges mentioned above. The method involves the absorption and separation of H2 using an absorbent to facilitate the forward shift of the reaction equilibrium and enhance reaction performance. A thermodynamic analysis using the equilibrium constant method presents that the separation of H2 can improve the methanol conversion rate and the total H2 yield. The feasibility of the method is validated through experiments in a fixed-bed reactor (4 mm diameter, 194 mm length) under the conditions of 200 °C and 1 bar. In the experiments, 1 g of bulk catalyst (CuO/ZnO/Al2O3) and 150 g of bulk hydrogen absorbent (Aluminum-doped lanthanum penta-nickel alloy, LaNi4.3Al0.7 alloy) are sequentially loaded into the reactor. As a proof of concept, a CO2 concentration of 84.10% is obtained in the reaction step of the first cycle, and a gas stream with an H2 concentration of 81.66% is obtained in the corresponding regeneration step. A plug flow reactor model considering the kinetics is developed to analyze the effects of the number of cycles and H2 separation ratio on the enhancement performance. The method indicates a high potential for commercialization given its low reaction temperature, high-purity H2, and membrane-free design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Hydrogen Production and Hydrogen Storage)
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28 pages, 15837 KiB  
Article
Numerical Study on Thermodynamic Coupling Characteristics of Fluid Sloshing in a Liquid Hydrogen Tank for Heavy-Duty Trucks
by Yuhao Zhu, Yu Bu, Wanli Gao, Fushou Xie, Wan Guo and Yanzhong Li
Energies 2023, 16(4), 1851; https://doi.org/10.3390/en16041851 - 13 Feb 2023
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3554
Abstract
The large-amplitude sloshing behavior of liquid hydrogen in a tank for heavy-duty trucks may have adverse effects on the safety and stability of driving. With successful application of liquid hydrogen in the field of new energy vehicles, the coupled thermodynamic performance during liquid [...] Read more.
The large-amplitude sloshing behavior of liquid hydrogen in a tank for heavy-duty trucks may have adverse effects on the safety and stability of driving. With successful application of liquid hydrogen in the field of new energy vehicles, the coupled thermodynamic performance during liquid hydrogen large-amplitude sloshing becomes more attractive. In this paper, a three-dimensional numerical model is established to simulate the thermodynamic coupling characteristics during liquid hydrogen sloshing in a horizontal tank for heavy-duty trucks. The calculation results obtained by the developed model are in good agreement with experimental data for liquid hydrogen. Based on the established 3D model, the large-amplitude sloshing behavior of liquid hydrogen under extreme acceleration, as well as the effects of acceleration magnitude and duration on liquid hydrogen sloshing, is numerically determined. The simulation results show that under the influence of liquid hydrogen large-amplitude sloshing, the convective heat transfer of fluid in the tank is greatly strengthened, resulting in a decrease in the vapor temperature and an increase in the liquid temperature. In particular, the vapor condensation caused by the sloshing promotes a rapid reduction of pressure in the tank. When the acceleration magnitude is 5 g with a duration of 200 ms, the maximum reduction of ullage pressure is 1550 Pa, and the maximum growth of the force on the right wall is 3.89 kN. Moreover, the acceleration magnitude and duration have a remarkable influence on liquid hydrogen sloshing. With the increase in acceleration magnitude or duration, there is a larger sloshing amplitude for the liquid hydrogen. When the duration of acceleration is 200 ms, compared with the situation at the acceleration magnitude of 5 g, the maximum reductions of ullage pressure decrease by 9.46% and 55.02%, and the maximum growth of forces on the right wall decrease by 80.57% and 99.53%, respectively, at 2 g and 0.5 g. Additionally, when the acceleration magnitude is 5 g, in contrast with the situation at a duration of acceleration of 200 ms, the maximum-ullage-pressure drops decrease by 8.17% and 21.62%, and the maximum increase in forces on the right wall decrease by 71.80% and 88.63%, at 100 ms and 50 ms, respectively. These results can provide a reference to the safety design of horizontal liquid hydrogen tanks for heavy-duty trucks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Hydrogen Production and Hydrogen Storage)
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Review

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29 pages, 4156 KiB  
Review
Hydrogen Production from Renewable and Non-Renewable Sources with a Focus on Bio-Hydrogen from Giant reed (Arundo donax L.), a Review
by Ciro Vasmara, Stefania Galletti, Stefano Cianchetta and Enrico Ceotto
Energies 2025, 18(3), 709; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18030709 - 4 Feb 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 937
Abstract
In the last five years, the use of hydrogen as an energy carrier has received rising attention because it can be used in internal combustion and jet engines, and it can even generate electricity in fuel cells. The scope of this work was [...] Read more.
In the last five years, the use of hydrogen as an energy carrier has received rising attention because it can be used in internal combustion and jet engines, and it can even generate electricity in fuel cells. The scope of this work was to critically review the methods of H2 production from renewable and non-renewable sources, with a focus on bio-H2 production from the perennial grass giant reed (Arundo donax L.) due to its outstanding biomass yield. This lignocellulosic biomass appears as a promising feedstock for bio-H2 production, with a higher yield in dark fermentation than photo-fermentation (217 vs. 87 mL H2 g−1 volatile solids on average). The H2 production can reach 202 m3 Mg−1 of giant reed dry matter. Assuming the average giant reed dry biomass yield (30.3 Mg ha−1 y−1), the attainable H2 yield could be 6060 m3 ha−1 y−1. A synthetic but comprehensive review of methods of H2 production from non-renewable sources is first presented, and then a more detailed analysis of renewable sources is discussed with emphasis on giant reed. Perspectives and challenges of bio-H2 production, including storage and transportation, are also discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Hydrogen Production and Hydrogen Storage)
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