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13 pages, 2234 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Blockchain Solutions for Logistic Management

by Veneta Aleksieva, Hristo Valchanov, Venelin Maleshkov and Aydan Haka

Blockchains 2024, 2(4), 445-457; https://doi.org/10.3390/blockchains2040019 - 31 Oct 2024

Viewed by 723

Abstract

Blockchain technologies have the potential to fundamentally change logistics and supply chain management. By leveraging the capabilities of blockchain technology, businesses can increase efficiency, reduce costs, and improve security and trust in operations. However, there are still difficulties to overcome in terms of [...] Read more.

Blockchain technologies have the potential to fundamentally change logistics and supply chain management. By leveraging the capabilities of blockchain technology, businesses can increase efficiency, reduce costs, and improve security and trust in operations. However, there are still difficulties to overcome in terms of uptake and implementation. This article examines the various blockchain technologies applicable in the field of logistics, presents the benefits and limitations of blockchain technologies in this aspect, and offers a summary of the existing technologies used in the logistics sector. According to this, blockchain-based models applicable both to a specific stage of the logistics process (e.g., transportation of goods, materials, and feedstocks; management of warehouse operations; cargo tracking; etc.) and related insurance services have been proposed. The proposed models have been tested in a lab environment on the HyperLedger Fabric platform, and the results show that they are fully functional. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Blockchains)

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58 pages, 52497 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid-Blockchain-Based Electronic Voting Machine System Embedded with Deepface, Sharding, and Post-Quantum Techniques

by Sohel Ahmed Joni, Rabiul Rahat, Nishat Tasnin, Partho Ghose, Md. Ashraf Uddin and John Ayoade

Blockchains 2024, 2(4), 366-423; https://doi.org/10.3390/blockchains2040017 - 30 Sep 2024

Viewed by 1330

Abstract

The integrity of democratic processes relies on secure and reliable election systems, yet achieving this reliability is challenging. This paper introduces the Post-Quantum Secured Multiparty Computed Hierarchical Authoritative Consensus Blockchain (PQMPCHAC-Bchain), a novel e-voting system designed to overcome the limitations of current Biometric [...] Read more.

The integrity of democratic processes relies on secure and reliable election systems, yet achieving this reliability is challenging. This paper introduces the Post-Quantum Secured Multiparty Computed Hierarchical Authoritative Consensus Blockchain (PQMPCHAC-Bchain), a novel e-voting system designed to overcome the limitations of current Biometric Electronic Voting Machine (EVM) systems, which suffer from trust issues due to closed-source designs, cyber vulnerabilities, and regulatory concerns. Our primary objective is to develop a robust, scalable, and secure e-voting framework that enhances transparency and trust in electoral outcomes. Key contributions include integrating hierarchical authorization and access control with a novel consensus mechanism for proper electoral governance. We implement blockchain sharding techniques to improve scalability and propose a multiparty computed token generation system to prevent fraudulent voting and secure voter privacy. Post-quantum cryptography is incorporated to safeguard against potential quantum computing threats, future-proofing the system. Additionally, we enhance authentication through a deep learning-based face verification model for biometric validation. Our performance analysis indicates that the PQMPCHAC-Bchain e-voting system offers a promising solution for secure elections. By addressing critical aspects of security, scalability, and trust, our proposed system aims to advance the field of electronic voting. This research contributes to ongoing efforts to strengthen the integrity of democratic processes through technological innovation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Blockchains)

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31 pages, 4756 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Blockchain Technology Application Domains along the E-Commerce Value Chain—A Qualitative Content Analysis of News Articles

by Josepha Witt and Mareike Schoop

Blockchains 2024, 2(3), 234-264; https://doi.org/10.3390/blockchains2030012 - 12 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1635

Abstract

Blockchain Technology (BCT) offers several possible applications in the field of electronic commerce (e-commerce), such as decentralised marketplaces or payments in cryptocurrencies. Even though these applications of BCT have already been explored in the academic literature, a comprehensive collection along the whole e-commerce [...] Read more.

Blockchain Technology (BCT) offers several possible applications in the field of electronic commerce (e-commerce), such as decentralised marketplaces or payments in cryptocurrencies. Even though these applications of BCT have already been explored in the academic literature, a comprehensive collection along the whole e-commerce value chain is still missing. Furthermore, the existing comprehensive reviews are based on the academic literature whilst the evolution and further development of BCT is highly driven by practitioners. Therefore, we aim to understand how and why BCT is used in e-commerce based on a qualitative content analysis of news articles, i.e., we apply scientific methods to content which reports the latest developments in the field. As a result, we describe the multiple application domains of BCT along the e-commerce value chain. Subsequently, we discuss the main underlying principles of BCT usage across all the value chain steps. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Blockchains)

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22 pages, 3155 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Situ-Oracle: A Learning-Based Situation Analysis Framework for Blockchain-Based IoT Systems

by Hongyi Bian, Wensheng Zhang and Carl K. Chang

Blockchains 2024, 2(2), 173-194; https://doi.org/10.3390/blockchains2020009 - 22 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1530

Abstract

The decentralized nature of blockchain enables data traceability, transparency, and immutability as complementary security features to the existing Internet of Things (IoT) systems. These Blockchain-based IoT (BIoT) systems aim to mitigate security risks such as malicious control, data leakage, and dishonesty often found [...] Read more.

The decentralized nature of blockchain enables data traceability, transparency, and immutability as complementary security features to the existing Internet of Things (IoT) systems. These Blockchain-based IoT (BIoT) systems aim to mitigate security risks such as malicious control, data leakage, and dishonesty often found in traditional cloud-based, vendor-specific IoT networks. As we steadily advance into the era of situation-aware IoT, the use of machine learning (ML) techniques has become essential for synthesizing situations based on sensory contexts. However, the challenge to integrate learning-based situation awareness with BIoT systems restricts the full potential of such integration. This is primarily due to the conflicts between the deterministic nature of smart contracts and the non-deterministic nature of machine learning, as well as the high costs of conducting machine learning on blockchain. To address the challenge, we propose a framework named Situ-Oracle. With the framework, a computation oracle of the blockchain ecosystem is leveraged to provide situation analysis as a service, based on Recurrent Neural Network (RNN)-based learning models tailored for the Situ model, and specifically designed smart contracts are deployed as intermediary communication channels between the IoT devices and the computation oracle. We used smart homes as a case study to demonstrate the framework design. Subsequently, system-wide evaluations were conducted over a physically constructed BIoT system. The results indicate that the proposed framework achieves better situation analysis accuracy (above 95%) and improves gas consumption as well as network throughput and latency when compared to baseline systems (on-chain learning or off-chain model verification). Overall, the paper presents a promising approach for improving situation analysis for BIoT systems, with potential applications in various domains such as smart homes, healthcare, and industrial automation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Blockchains)

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16 pages, 1268 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Performance of PBFT Consensus under Voting by Groups

by Vojislav B. Mišić, Jelena Mišić and Xiaolin Chang

Blockchains 2024, 2(2), 134-149; https://doi.org/10.3390/blockchains2020007 - 26 Apr 2024

Viewed by 845

Abstract

Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT) is the protocol of choice for many applications that require distributed consensus between a number of participant nodes. While PBFT assumes a single voting committee, many applications recognize different groups of participants that need to reach a consensus [...] Read more.

Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT) is the protocol of choice for many applications that require distributed consensus between a number of participant nodes. While PBFT assumes a single voting committee, many applications recognize different groups of participants that need to reach a consensus separately before accepting a proposal. To this end, we propose to count the votes by separate groups or committees of participating nodes, instead of all together as in the original PBFT. We then investigate the performance impact of this approach on the mean time to accept a data block and the number of nodes involved in making the final decision. Our results indicate that the proposed solutions impose a slight performance penalty which may be countermanded by reducing the quorum numbers needed in different subsets of the original committee. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Blockchains)

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28 pages, 1647 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Decision Model to Design Trust-Focused and Blockchain-Based Health Data Management Applications

by Christina Erler, Ann-Marit Bauer, Friedrich Gauger and Wilhelm Stork

Blockchains 2024, 2(2), 79-106; https://doi.org/10.3390/blockchains2020005 - 9 Apr 2024

Viewed by 1070

Abstract

Many Blockchain-based approaches have been published in the field of health data management applications (HDMAs). However, no comprehensive guideline exists to guide the multiple and interdependent design decisions to develop such systems. This paper aims to support the HDMA system design processes by [...] Read more.

Many Blockchain-based approaches have been published in the field of health data management applications (HDMAs). However, no comprehensive guideline exists to guide the multiple and interdependent design decisions to develop such systems. This paper aims to support the HDMA system design processes by introducing a novel decision model. The model considers all relevant requirements, from regulatory context to user needs and trust considerations. To generate the decision model, we define a taxonomy that organizes previously published approaches by their technical design features and combines it with the trust assumptions of the participating actors according to the STRIDE method. The model aims to support a cohesive overall system design by addressing Blockchain type, off-chain storage, identity and access management, security decisions, and the specific use case of data donation. A group of experts evaluated the decision tree and its utility is demonstrated in three representative use cases. Special attention is paid to the use case of data donation via a data trustee, which is examined in detail. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Blockchains)

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21 pages, 846 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Decision Tree-Based Federated Learning: A Survey

by Zijun Wang and Keke Gai

Blockchains 2024, 2(1), 40-60; https://doi.org/10.3390/blockchains2010003 - 7 Mar 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2631

Abstract

Federated learning (FL) has garnered significant attention as a novel machine learning technique that enables collaborative training among multiple parties without exposing raw local data. In comparison to traditional neural networks or linear models, decision tree models offer higher simplicity and interpretability. The [...] Read more.

Federated learning (FL) has garnered significant attention as a novel machine learning technique that enables collaborative training among multiple parties without exposing raw local data. In comparison to traditional neural networks or linear models, decision tree models offer higher simplicity and interpretability. The integration of FL technology with decision tree models holds immense potential for performance enhancement and privacy improvement. One current challenge is to identify methods for training and prediction of decision tree models in the FL environment. This survey addresses this issue and examines recent efforts to integrate federated learning and decision tree technologies. We review research outcomes achieved in federated decision trees and emphasize that data security and communication efficiency are crucial focal points for FL. The survey discusses key findings related to data privacy and security issues, as well as communication efficiency problems in federated decision tree models. The primary research outcomes of this paper aim to provide theoretical support for the engineering of federated learning with decision trees as the underlying training model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Blockchains)

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20 pages, 2339 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Zk-SNARKs-Based Anonymous Payment Channel in Blockchain

by Yunwei Guo, Haochen Liang, Liehuang Zhu and Keke Gai

Blockchains 2024, 2(1), 20-39; https://doi.org/10.3390/blockchains2010002 - 5 Feb 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1589

Abstract

Payment channels serve as an effective solution to the scalability problem of cryptocurrencies, which significantly increase transaction rates by allowing users to conduct large-scale offline transactions off-chain without posting everything to the blockchain. However, the existing payment channels lack privacy protection for the [...] Read more.

Payment channels serve as an effective solution to the scalability problem of cryptocurrencies, which significantly increase transaction rates by allowing users to conduct large-scale offline transactions off-chain without posting everything to the blockchain. However, the existing payment channels lack privacy protection for the transaction amount and the linking relationship between the two parties to the transaction. Therefore, in order to address the scalability and privacy issues of cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin, this paper proposes a zk-SNARKs-based anonymous payment channel (zk-APC), which supports an unlimited number of off-chain payments between the payer and the payee and protects the privacy of the participants. Specifically, the proposed scheme achieves relational anonymity and amount privacy for both on-chain and off-chain transactions in the payment channel through utilizing zero-knowledge proof (zk-SNARKs) and commitment schemes. This paper proves that the proposed method is more effective than similar schemes through a performance evaluation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Blockchains)

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19 pages, 567 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Decentralization Is Good or Not? Defending Consensus in Ethereum 2.0

by Vojislav B. Mišić, Soosan Naderi Mighan, Jelena Mišić and Xiaolin Chang

Blockchains 2024, 2(1), 1-19; https://doi.org/10.3390/blockchains2010001 - 23 Jan 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1827

Abstract

Proof-of-Stake (PoS) protocols are widely accepted as a viable substitute for the Proof-of-Work-based consensus, which is why recent blockchain-based cryptocurrencies and applications, most notably Ethereum 2.0, are using some variant of PoS as the basis for the consensus protocol. However, the implementation of [...] Read more.

Proof-of-Stake (PoS) protocols are widely accepted as a viable substitute for the Proof-of-Work-based consensus, which is why recent blockchain-based cryptocurrencies and applications, most notably Ethereum 2.0, are using some variant of PoS as the basis for the consensus protocol. However, the implementation of PoS protocols in Ethereum 2.0 are not without its share of problems and vulnerabilities, especially with respect to the malicious behavior of validator nodes. In this paper, we first review the basic tenets of PoS protocols. We then discuss some of the recently described attacks on the Ethereum 2.0 consensus, and we also show that some of the design rationales adopted in PoS implementation—the decentralization of the voting process in particular—have, in actuality, enabled attacks that can be launched at a very low cost to the attacker. We also propose simple remedies that can reduce or eliminate the impact of those attacks and can evaluate the performance of the Ethereum 2.0 consensus when these remedies are applied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Blockchains)

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Review

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32 pages, 2145 KiB

Open AccessReview

Blockchain on Sustainable Environmental Measures: A Review

by Maria-Victoria Vladucu, Hailun Wu, Jorge Medina, Khondaker M. Salehin, Ziqian Dong and Roberto Rojas-Cessa

Blockchains 2024, 2(3), 334-365; https://doi.org/10.3390/blockchains2030016 - 14 Sep 2024

Viewed by 1574

Abstract

Blockchain has emerged as a solution for ensuring accurate and truthful environmental variable monitoring needed for the management of pollutants and natural resources. The immutability property of blockchain helps protect the measured data on pollution and natural resources to enable truthful reporting and [...] Read more.

Blockchain has emerged as a solution for ensuring accurate and truthful environmental variable monitoring needed for the management of pollutants and natural resources. The immutability property of blockchain helps protect the measured data on pollution and natural resources to enable truthful reporting and effective management and control of polluting agents. However, specifics on what to measure, how to use blockchain, and highlighting which blockchain frameworks have been adopted need to be explored to fill the research gaps. Therefore, we review existing works on the use of blockchain for monitoring and managing environmental variables in this paper. Specifically, we examine existing blockchain applications on greenhouse gas emissions, solid and plastic waste, food waste, food security, water usage, and the circular economy and identify what motivates the adoption of blockchain, features sought, used blockchain frameworks and consensus algorithms, and the adopted supporting technologies to complement data sensing and reporting. We conclude the review by identifying practical works that provide implementation details for rapid adoption and remaining challenges that merit future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Blockchains)

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23 pages, 1877 KiB

Open AccessReview

Blockchain for Organ Transplantation: A Survey

by Elif Calik and Malika Bendechache

Blockchains 2024, 2(2), 150-172; https://doi.org/10.3390/blockchains2020008 - 9 May 2024

Viewed by 1510

Abstract

As blockchain becomes more widely used, a growing number of application fields are becoming interested in blockchain to benefit from its decentralised nature, invariability, security, transparency, quick transaction capabilities, and cost-effectiveness. Blockchain has a wide range of applications and uses in healthcare. Distributed [...] Read more.

As blockchain becomes more widely used, a growing number of application fields are becoming interested in blockchain to benefit from its decentralised nature, invariability, security, transparency, quick transaction capabilities, and cost-effectiveness. Blockchain has a wide range of applications and uses in healthcare. Distributed ledger technology facilitates the secure transfer of patient medical records, manages the medicine supply chain, and creates an efficient, transparent, safe, and effective way of communicating data across global healthcare. The organ transplantation process (OTP) is one of the healthcare areas that benefit from the use of such technology to make its process more secure and transparent. In this article, we put forward a systematic literature review analysis on the application of blockchain to the OTP. Additionally, we address and highlight the barriers and challenges that arise while using blockchain technology for the OTP. We also offer some suggestions for future developments that would enhance blockchain’s implementation in the OTP domain. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Blockchains)

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21 pages, 688 KiB

Open AccessReview

Web3: Exploring Decentralized Technologies and Applications for the Future of Empowerment and Ownership

by Yiwei Lai, Jingyi Yang, Mingzhe Liu, Yibei Li and Shanlin Li

Blockchains 2023, 1(2), 111-131; https://doi.org/10.3390/blockchains1020008 - 11 Dec 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 8964

Abstract

The emergence of the World Wide Web has revolutionized online communication, aiming to achieve global information sharing and communication. However, the current Web 2.0 architecture, which relies on centralized platforms, presents limitations such as restricted user rights, data privacy concerns, and dependence on [...] Read more.

The emergence of the World Wide Web has revolutionized online communication, aiming to achieve global information sharing and communication. However, the current Web 2.0 architecture, which relies on centralized platforms, presents limitations such as restricted user rights, data privacy concerns, and dependence on centralized institutions. Web3, as a concept describing the next evolutionary stage of the internet, offers a solution to these issues by reshaping the internet infrastructure. Web3 provides a foundation for autonomous digital experiences and drives the advancement of the digital economy. This paper offers a thorough exploration of Web3, covering its key technologies, applications, challenges, and opportunities. We begin by introducing the core technologies behind Web3, followed by an exploration of its prominent applications. Finally, we analyze the challenges faced by Web3 and discuss potential research opportunities to address these challenges in the future. In summary, this study comprehensively elaborates on Web3 and lays a solid foundation for subsequent research work, encouraging researchers to explore new frontiers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Blockchains)

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21 pages, 4706 KiB

Open AccessReview

Bitcoin and Renewable Energy Mining: A Survey

by Yusuke Tomatsu and Wenlin Han

Blockchains 2023, 1(2), 90-110; https://doi.org/10.3390/blockchains1020007 - 7 Dec 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2009

Abstract

Bitcoin, the most valuable and energy-consuming cryptocurrency, has recently been at the center of a heated debate over its environmental impact. This controversy has caught the public’s attention, prompting us to investigate the energy consumption of Bitcoin. In this paper, we have conducted [...] Read more.

Bitcoin, the most valuable and energy-consuming cryptocurrency, has recently been at the center of a heated debate over its environmental impact. This controversy has caught the public’s attention, prompting us to investigate the energy consumption of Bitcoin. In this paper, we have conducted a review of the literature on various aspects of Bitcoin mining, including its mechanisms, energy consumption, mining sites, and the potential for renewable energy use. Our findings reveal that the power consumption of Bitcoin is bound to increase with the continued adoption of the proof-of-work (PoW) consensus algorithm. Nonetheless, the growing availability of affordable renewable energy sources worldwide brings hope that Bitcoin mining will shift towards cleaner energy in the near future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Blockchains)

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17 pages, 2423 KiB

Open AccessReview

Blockchain and Healthcare: A Critical Analysis of Progress and Challenges in the Last Five Years

by Hamed Taherdoost

Blockchains 2023, 1(2), 73-89; https://doi.org/10.3390/blockchains1020006 - 8 Nov 2023

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 6777

Abstract

Utilizing the fundamental characteristics of the decentralization, immutability, and transparency of blockchain technology, the healthcare industry has made notable advancements in incorporating it over the past five years. This review examines the progress and challenges encountered in this critical study by assessing 124 [...] Read more.

Utilizing the fundamental characteristics of the decentralization, immutability, and transparency of blockchain technology, the healthcare industry has made notable advancements in incorporating it over the past five years. This review examines the progress and challenges encountered in this critical study by assessing 124 articles published by MDPI between 2018 and the current date. Examining blockchain’s potential uses, like safe data exchange and interoperability in supply chain management and electronic health records, provides exciting new directions for the future of healthcare. Blockchain technology can greatly increase efficiency and cost-effectiveness by guaranteeing data integrity, protecting patient privacy, and reducing administrative procedures. This paper objectively evaluates blockchain’s advancement in healthcare through a thorough analysis of real-world applications and research projects. By highlighting both its advantages and disadvantages, this analysis seeks to add to the continuing conversation about how blockchain will influence the way healthcare is managed and delivered in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Blockchains)

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15 pages, 2054 KiB

Open AccessReview

Blockchain Technology Application in Security: A Systematic Review

by Nazanin Moosavi and Hamed Taherdoost

Blockchains 2023, 1(2), 58-72; https://doi.org/10.3390/blockchains1020005 - 29 Oct 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 8345

Abstract

Blockchain technology is a promising technology that attracts popularity among researchers. However, it was first introduced with digital currencies, particularly Bitcoin, but nowadays, it is also known as one of the most frequently used techniques for securing networks. This systematic review research identifies [...] Read more.

Blockchain technology is a promising technology that attracts popularity among researchers. However, it was first introduced with digital currencies, particularly Bitcoin, but nowadays, it is also known as one of the most frequently used techniques for securing networks. This systematic review research identifies studies that use blockchain for their security challenges. In addition, different fields in blockchain usage, blockchain categorization type, consensus mechanism, smart contract usage, and integration with other software-based algorithms are also investigated. Our results maintain that the Internet of Things (IoT) is the main field in which blockchain provides security. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Blockchains)

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15 pages, 1153 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recommendation Systems for the Metaverse

by Lingwen Wei, Xutian Wang, Ting Wang, Zhilan Duan, Yan Hong, Xiaoming He and Huawei Huang

Blockchains 2023, 1(1), 19-33; https://doi.org/10.3390/blockchains1010003 - 24 Aug 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2872

Abstract

The metaverse, a virtual world closely intertwined with reality, represents the next-generation form of the Internet and encompasses advanced sociability and interaction. With the rapid growth of users and virtual products within this environment, the importance of recommendation systems becomes paramount. This article [...] Read more.

The metaverse, a virtual world closely intertwined with reality, represents the next-generation form of the Internet and encompasses advanced sociability and interaction. With the rapid growth of users and virtual products within this environment, the importance of recommendation systems becomes paramount. This article presents a comprehensive survey that examines the technologies influencing the development of recommendation systems tailored for the metaverse. Firstly, we identify the key trends and fundamental concepts associated with these systems. Secondly, we delve into the core supporting technologies and application scenarios within metaverse recommendation systems. Lastly, we provide insights into future research directions for this rapidly evolving field. Our survey reveals that while progress has been achieved, further investigation is necessary to optimize the technical layout and content of metaverse recommendation systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Blockchains)

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16 pages, 1740 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Approaches for Detecting Vulnerabilities in Smart Contracts within Web 3.0 Applications

by Hui Li, Ranran Dang, Yao Yao and Han Wang

Blockchains 2023, 1(1), 3-18; https://doi.org/10.3390/blockchains1010002 - 23 Aug 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4523

Abstract

Smart contracts, programs running on a blockchain, play a crucial role in driving Web 3.0 across a variety of domains, such as digital finance and future networks. However, they currently face significant security vulnerabilities that could result in potential risks and losses. This [...] Read more.

Smart contracts, programs running on a blockchain, play a crucial role in driving Web 3.0 across a variety of domains, such as digital finance and future networks. However, they currently face significant security vulnerabilities that could result in potential risks and losses. This paper outlines the inherent vulnerabilities of smart contracts, both those typical of their applications and those unique to Web 3.0 applications. We then systematically classify the techniques based on their core approach to detecting vulnerabilities in smart contracts. Using these approaches, we conduct a comparative analysis of existing tools in terms of their vulnerability coverage, detection effectiveness, open-source availability, and integration capabilities. Finally, we present the Co-Governed Sovereignty Multi-Identifier Network (CoG-MIN) as a case study to demonstrate the significance of smart contract application security in establishing a community with a shared future in cyberspace during the Web 3.0 era and anticipate future research directions with challenges. To conclude, this study addresses the gap in integrating existing smart contract security research with the advancement of Web 3.0 development, while also providing recommendations for future research directions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in Blockchains)

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