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A special issue of Bioengineering (ISSN 2306-5354). This special issue belongs to the section "Biomechanics and Sports Medicine".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2026 | Viewed by 23761

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Dr. Andrea Biscarini

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Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy
Interests: biomechanics; physical exercise; sensorimotor system; motor control; strength training; rehabilitation; equipment design

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

I warmly invite you to contribute to this Special Issue on “Biomechanics of Physical Exercise” of Bioengineering. Physical exercise biomechanics explore the mechanics of the human body during the execution of physical exercises, and the interaction between the performer, their equipment, and the surrounding environment. Various exercise categories can be delineated, reflecting the purposeful nature of physical exercises, including exercises designed to restore, maintain, or enhance posture and movement awareness, breathing function, neuromotor control, body composition, flexibility, mobility, stability, cardiorespiratory performance, strength, muscular endurance, power, balance, coordination, speed, agility, and quickness.

Physical exercise biomechanics comprise an investigation into the following key aspects:

Exercise kinematics, osteo-kinematics, and arthro-kinematics;
External resistances, ground reactions, and other external forces acting on the body;
Inertial forces arising from accelerations of body segments and exercise equipment;
Internal joint torques and joint power;
Muscle forces and muscle activation patterns;
Joint reaction forces and their components along relevant anatomic directions;
Forces acting on specific joint structures.

Insights gained from this information can be used to optimize injury prevention strategies, fitness and athletic programs, rehabilitation interventions, and equipment design. Notably, physical exercise biomechanics also contribute to enhancing athletic performance by improving movement efficiency, refining technique, and maximizing power output. To these purposes, robotics, artificial intelligence, weight-bearing dynamic RMN, and other advanced and innovative technologies are nowadays used in addition to experimental techniques and devices traditionally used in exercise biomechanics (such as motion capture systems, force plates, electromyography, modeling and computer simulations, wearable sensors and implanted sensors, and medical imaging). This Special Issue aims to comprise research studies, review papers, and technical notes providing deeper insights and applicative advances into all aspects of physical exercise biomechanics.

Dr. Andrea Biscarini
Guest Editor

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Keywords

biomechanics
kinematics
kinetics
muscle activation
joint loads
proprioception
postural control and balance
neuromotor control
human movement
physical exercise
athletic training
athletic performance
sport
injury prevention
rehabilitation
exercise equipment
equipment design
ergonomics
motion analysis
force plates
electromyography
EMG
musculoskeletal modelling
simulation
sensors
imaging
magnetic resonance
MRI
artificial intelligence
robotics
new technologies

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Published Papers (11 papers)

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Research

29 pages, 2445 KB

Open AccessArticle

Postural Stability Changes During the 4 Phases of the Half Squat: Kinematics Profile of the Center of Pressure and Center of Mass in High-Performance Weightlifters—A Pilot Study

by Emilio Manuel Arrayales-Millán, Miguel Rodal, Mirvana Elizabeth González-Macías, Carlos Villa-Angulo, Karla Raquel Keys-González, Arnulfo Ramos-Jiménez, Isabella Arrayales-Mejia and Kostantinos Gianikellis

Bioengineering 2026, 13(6), 711; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering13060711 (registering DOI) - 21 Jun 2026

Abstract

This study investigated balance control during the half squat by analyzing the relationship between the center of mass (CoM) and the center of pressure (CoP) in five experienced male weightlifters performing segmented squats at five load levels (20–80% 1 RM) across four Power-Based Training (PBT) exercises. The area of the 95% confidence ellipse was quantified using the Vicon motion capture system in conjunction with AMTI force plates. Given the small sample size (n = 5), a dual inference approach was implemented—frequentist repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) complemented by a unified adaptive Bayesian hierarchical model—to mitigate Type II error in low-power scenarios. Regarding the movement phase, a marked effect on center of pressure (CoP) stability was observed, as evidenced by both statistical approaches (frequentist: F(1.65, 6.59) = 19.44, p = 0.002, ηp² = 0.829; Bayesian: P(β_phase < 0) > 0.999). Although external load did not reach statistical significance in the frequentist analysis (p = 0.177, achieved power = 0.27), the Bayesian model provided moderate evidence of a positive impact (β_load = 0.059, 95% HDI [0.005, 0.115], p = 0.981). The area of the center of mass (CoM) ellipse showed no effects of interest. Limb asymmetries were significant and consistent throughout the experiment (frequentist: 48.01 ± 30.13%; Bayesian: 69.48%, 95% HDI [55.86%, 81.44%], P(AI > 20%) = 1.000) and were not modulated by the experimental condition. CoP-CoM coupling was stronger in the mediolateral direction than in the anteroposterior direction. The findings reveal that phase is the primary factor in postural stability, exerting a modest positive influence discernible only through low-powered probabilistic inference, and that the dual framework strengthens inferential robustness in small-sample biomechanical studies. Confirmatory studies with larger samples are recommended. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics of Physical Exercise)

27 pages, 1395 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Rigid-Body Pendulum Model for Plyometric Push-Up Biomechanics: Analytical Derivation and Numerical Quantification of Flight Time, Arc Displacement, Maximum Height, and Mechanical Power Output

by Wissem Dhahbi

Bioengineering 2026, 13(4), 445; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering13040445 - 11 Apr 2026

Viewed by 944

Abstract

Aim: Conventional free-fall kinematic models applied to plyometric push-up assessment treat the upper body as a vertically translating point mass, ignoring the curvilinear trajectory imposed by the ankle pivot and systematically biasing flight-time and height estimates. Methods: A planar rigid-body pendulum pivoting about the ankle axis was formulated via two independent derivation pathways (static moment equilibrium and a gravitational-torque coordinate approach), yielding effective pendulum length L = (M_W/M) × L_OS. Closed-form expressions for flight time, arc displacement, maximum height, and mean mechanical power were derived analytically from energy conservation and compared against free-fall predictions across seven pendulum arm lengths (L_OW = 0.50–2.00 m) and 500 initial hand velocities per length, using adaptive Gauss–Kronrod quadrature (relative tolerance 10⁻¹⁰) with ODE cross-validation (maximum discrepancy < 2.5 × 10⁻⁷ s). Results: Flight time equivalence (t^H = t^G) was formally established. The free-fall model overestimated flight time by up to 18.82% (Δt = 0.096 s; L_OW = 0.50 m, V_H,0 = 2.50 m/s) and maximum height by up to 28.43% (Δh = 0.087 m; L_OW = 0.50 m, t_flight = 0.50 s), with both errors growing nonlinearly with initial velocity. Overestimation in height was proportionally larger at shorter pendulum arm lengths (18.18% at t_flight = 0.30 s for L_OW = 0.50 m vs. 10.91% for L_OW = 1.00 m). Conclusions: The pendulum model provides a physically consistent, analytically tractable framework for geometry-adjusted upper-body power assessment from four field-obtainable anthropometric inputs. These results reflect computational self-consistency; prospective experimental validation against force-plate kinematics is required before applied deployment. Prospective empirical validation against dual force-plate and motion-capture reference data is required to establish the model’s accuracy boundaries under real push-up kinematics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics of Physical Exercise)

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17 pages, 870 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Control of Joint Reaction Forces During Single-Joint Strengthening Exercises via Adaptive Electromechanical Technologies: An Analytical Biomechanical Framework

by Andrea Biscarini

Bioengineering 2026, 13(3), 270; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering13030270 - 26 Feb 2026

Viewed by 1051

Abstract

Background: Modern electromechanical technologies can be integrated into strength training machines to regulate the magnitude, direction, and point of application of resistance during exercise, either through preprogrammed settings or adaptively in response to real-time kinematic data. However, this potential remains largely unexplored. The objective of this study was to investigate how these new-generation devices may be managed to enable precise control of the mechanical load applied to specific joint structures during strengthening exercises. Methods: A foundational framework of biomechanical equations was developed to establish the functional relationships between joint reaction forces and key variables, including kinematic parameters (joint angle, angular velocity, and angular acceleration) and resistance characteristics (magnitude, direction, and point of application). The analysis focused on analytically determined single-joint exercises, which are commonly employed in early-stage rehabilitation and athletic conditioning programs. Results: Application of the model to single-joint knee extension exercises demonstrated that the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)-loading shear tibiofemoral force can be entirely eliminated throughout the full range of knee motion, without increasing either the tibiofemoral compressive force or the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL)-loading shear component, while preserving the desired peak and profile of the resistance torque. Conclusion: The proposed analytical framework enables a comprehensive understanding of how to regulate resistance parameters through advanced electromechanical technologies to minimize joint stress during single-joint strengthening exercises. Precise control of joint reaction forces during exercise is critical for the design of therapeutic and safety-enhanced training protocols. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics of Physical Exercise)

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25 pages, 515 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Engineering Elite Swimming Start Performance: Key Kinetic and Kinematic Variables with Reference Values

by Dennis-Peter Born, Lina Nussbaumer, Markus Buck, Jesús J. Ruiz-Navarro and Michael Romann

Bioengineering 2026, 13(2), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering13020180 - 3 Feb 2026

Viewed by 1497

Abstract

To provide deeper insights into the complex and multidimensional nature of swimming start performance, the present study aimed to determine its key performance indicators (KPIs) and provide percentile-based reference values for elite junior and adult swimmers. Hence, routine performance analysis data of Swiss junior and senior national team members were analyzed, including multiple European champions, World champions, Olympic medalists and a World record holder (n = 136, age: 18.3 ± 3.6 [13–32] years, World Aquatics swimming points: 761 ± 73 [609–1061]). All kinetic and kinematic variables measured by the instrumented starting block were analyzed, and variables with pairwise correlation > 0.80 were clustered using principal component analysis with orthogonal Varimax rotation, retaining components with Eigenvalue > 1.0 and factor loadings > 0.6. The highest loaded variables of each component were used as independent variables, alongside the variables with low co-variance, to determine KPIs with multiple linear regression analysis. As such, peak and average power (p ≤ 0.05), front horizontal and total vertical peak forces (p ≤ 0.04), timing of peak power and rear horizontal forces (p ≤ 0.02), resultant grab forces and their timing (p ≤ 0.05), center-of-gravity height at take-off (p = 0.03), take-off horizontal and vertical velocity (p = 0.02), resultant entry velocity (p = 0.01), entry time (p < 0.01), distance before the first kick (p < 0.01), maximal swimming depth (p = 0.02) and distance before breaking through the water surface (p < 0.01) showed a significant effect on the dependent variables (15 m start time). In conclusion, swimmers should maximize power and force production peaking earlier and grab forces peaking later during the block phase. They should increase take-off and entry velocities, distance before the first undulating kick, maximal swimming depth and underwater distance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics of Physical Exercise)

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19 pages, 1087 KB

Open AccessArticle

Neuromuscular and Kinetic Adaptations to Symmetric and Asymmetric Load Carriage During Walking in Individuals with Chronic Low Back Pain

by Raheleh Tajik, Wissem Dhahbi, Raghad Mimar, Mehdi Khaleghi Tazji, Halil İbrahim Ceylan, Serdar Bayrakdaroğlu, Valentina Stefanica and Nadhir Hammami

Bioengineering 2026, 13(1), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering13010082 - 12 Jan 2026

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1465

Abstract

Aim: This study examined how load size and symmetry affect trunk muscle activation patterns, vertical ground reaction forces, and estimated lumbar spine compression during overground walking in individuals with chronic low back pain (CLBP) and those without symptoms. Methods: Thirty male participants (15 with CLBP, 15 controls; ages 23–28 years) performed walking tests under four load conditions: symmetric and asymmetric carriage at 10% and 20% of body weight. Bilateral surface electromyography measured activation from seven trunk muscles (rectus abdominis, external oblique, internal oblique, latissimus dorsi, lumbar erector spinae, multifidus) and the thoracolumbar fascia region, normalized to maximum voluntary isometric contractions (%MVIC). Force plates recorded vertical ground reaction forces synchronized with heel-strike events. A repeated-measures ANOVA with Bonferroni corrections was used to analyze the effects of load configuration and magnitude. Results: Asymmetric loading at 20% body weight caused significantly higher peak vertical ground reaction forces compared to symmetric loading (mean difference = 47.3 N, p < 0.001), with a significant interaction between load magnitude and configuration (p = 0.004, ηp² = 0.26). Participants with CLBP showed consistently higher trunk muscle activation throughout the gait cycle (peak: 37% MVIC vs. 30% MVIC in controls; p < 0.001, d = 1.68), with maximum recruitment at shorter muscle lengths and 24% less activation at optimal length (95% CI: 18.2–29.8%). The lumbar erector spinae and multifidus muscles exhibited the highest activation during asymmetric 20% loading in CLBP participants (0.282 and 0.263%MVIC, respectively), indicating compensatory neuromuscular strategies. Conclusion: Asymmetric load carriage creates disproportionately high mechanical and neuromuscular demands, effects that are greatly amplified in individuals with CLBP. These findings support rehabilitation strategies that improve load distribution and restore motor control, thereby reducing compensatory strain and enhancing trunk stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics of Physical Exercise)

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14 pages, 794 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Biomechanical Strategies of Running Gait Among Healthy and Recently Injured Pediatric and Adult Runners

by Cole Verble, Ryan M. Nixon, Lydia Pezzullo, Matthew Martenson, Kevin R. Vincent and Heather K. Vincent

Bioengineering 2025, 12(9), 937; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering12090937 - 30 Aug 2025

Viewed by 3477

Abstract

Biomechanical strategies of running gait were compared among healthy and recently injured pediatric and adult runners (N = 207). Spatiotemporal, kinematic, and kinetic parameters (ground reaction force [GRF], vertical average loading rate [VALR]) and leg stiffness (K_vert) were obtained during running on an instrumented treadmill with simultaneous 3D-motion capture. Significant age X injury interactions existed for cadence, peak GRF, and peak joint angles in stance. Cadence was fastest in healthy adults and 2–3% lower in other groups (p = 0.049). Injured adults exhibited higher variance in stance and swing time, whereas injured pediatric runners had lower variance in these measures (p < 0.05). Peak GRF was highest in non-injured adults (2.6–2.7 BW) and lowest in injured adults (2.4 BW; p < 0.05). VALRs (BW/s) were higher among pediatric groups, irrespective of injury (p < 0.05). The interaction for ankle dorsiflexion/plantarflexion moment was significant (p = 0.05). Healthy pediatric runners produced more plantarflexion than all other groups (p = 0.026). Pelvis rotation was highest in healthy pediatric runners and lowest in healthy adults (17.3° versus 12.0°; p = 0.036). Pediatric runners did not leverage force-dampening strategies, but reduced gait cycle time variance and controlled pelvic rotation. Injured adults had lower GRF and longer stance time, indicating a shift toward force mitigation during stance. Age-specific rehabilitation and gait retraining approaches may be warranted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics of Physical Exercise)

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19 pages, 1054 KB

Open AccessArticle

Half Squat Mechanical Analysis Based on PBT Framework

by Miguel Rodal, Emilio Manuel Arrayales-Millán, Mirvana Elizabeth Gonzalez-Macías, Jorge Pérez-Gómez and Kostas Gianikellis

Bioengineering 2025, 12(6), 603; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering12060603 - 1 Jun 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2656

Abstract

Muscular strength is an essential factor in sports performance and general health, especially for optimizing mechanical power, as well as for injury prevention. The present study biomechanically characterized the half squat (HS) using a systemic structural approach based on mechanical power, called Power-Based Training (PBT), through which four phases of the movement were determined (acceleration and deceleration of lowering and lifting). Five weightlifters from the Mexican national team (categories U17, U20, and U23) participated, who performed five repetitions per set of HS with progressive loads (20%, 35%, 50%, 65%, and 80% of the one repetition maximum). The behavior of the center of mass of the subject–bar system was recorded by photogrammetry, calculating position, velocity, acceleration, mechanical power, and mechanical work. The results showed a significant reduction in velocity, acceleration, and mechanical power as the load increases, as well as variations in the duration and range of displacement per phase. These findings highlight the importance of a detailed analysis to understand the neuromuscular demands of HS and to optimize its application. The PBT approach and global center of mass analysis provide a more accurate view of the mechanics of this exercise, facilitating its application in future research, as well as in performance planning and monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics of Physical Exercise)

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10 pages, 445 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Hallux Limitus: Exploring the Variability in Lower Limb Symmetry and Its Connection to Gait Parameters—A Case–Control Study

by Natalia Tovaruela Carrión, Ricardo Becerro-de-Bengoa-Vallejo, Marta Elena Losa-Iglesias, Daniel López-López, Juan Gómez-Salgado and Javier Bayod-López

Bioengineering 2025, 12(3), 298; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering12030298 - 14 Mar 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2488

Abstract

Hallux limitus pathology is defined as a limitation of the dorsiflexion movement of the first toe without degenerative involvement of the first metatarsophalangeal joint, which produces pain and generates functional impairment, especially in the propulsive phase of gait. It is very common to find this pathology in adulthood accompanied by other compensations at a biomechanical level as a consequence of blockage of the main pivot in the sagittal plane. The aim was to determine the symmetry index that occurs in dynamics affiliated with other gait parameters in subjects with and without hallux limitus. A total of 70 subjects were part of the sample, and these were separated into two groups, each consisting of 35 subjects, depending on whether they had bilateral hallux limitus or if they were healthy subjects. In this study, a platform was used to assess the load symmetry index and walking phases. The results showed significant differences in the symmetry index for lateral load (p = 0.023), the initial contact phase (p = 0.003), and the flatfoot phase (p < 0.001). The adults who had bilateral hallux limitus exhibited changes in the symmetry index during the lateral load as well as in the initial contact and flatfoot contact phases, demonstrating increased instability when compared to individuals with normal feet. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics of Physical Exercise)

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20 pages, 2873 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects on Force, Velocity, Power, and Muscle Activation of Resistances with Variable Inertia Generated by Programmable Electromechanical Motors During Explosive Chest Press Exercises

by Luca Zoffoli, Silvano Zanuso and Andrea Biscarini

Bioengineering 2025, 12(3), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering12030292 - 14 Mar 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2860

Abstract

Strength training machines incorporating advanced electro-mechanical technologies can produce hybrid resistances with variable inertia, such as a resistance that progressively changes from gravitational (inertial) to pneumatic (non-inertial) across the range of motion (ROM). To explore the biomechanical effects of these innovative resistances, a robotic chest press machine was programmed to offer three distinct inertial profiles: gravitational-type constant inertia throughout the ROM (I_FULL); no inertia (I_ZERO); and linearly descending inertia across the ROM (I_VAR). Ten healthy adults performed five maximal-effort, explosive chest press movements under each inertial profile at 30, 50 and 70% of their one-repetition maximum. During each trial, muscle activity of the pectoralis major, anterior deltoid, and triceps brachii was recorded, along with force, velocity and power outputs from the machine. Statistical non-parametric maps based on two-way repeated measures ANOVA were used to assess the effects of load level and inertial profile on the collected time series. Higher load levels consistently led to increased force and reduced velocity and power outcomes over large parts of the ROM. Compared to I_FULL, I_ZERO allowed for greater velocity at the expense of lower force throughout the ROM, while I_VAR produced higher force and power outputs despite having lower velocity than I_ZERO. Additionally, both I_ZERO and I_VAR significantly increased triceps brachii activity at the end of the ROM compared to I_FULL. I_VAR outperformed both I_FULL and I_ZERO in terms of force and power. Coaches and therapists are advised to consider variable inertial profiles as a key parameter when designing exercise programs for athletes or patients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics of Physical Exercise)

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31 pages, 5689 KB

Open AccessArticle

Reliability of an Inertial Measurement System Applied to the Technical Assessment of Forehand and Serve in Amateur Tennis Players

by Lucio Caprioli, Cristian Romagnoli, Francesca Campoli, Saeid Edriss, Elvira Padua, Vincenzo Bonaiuto and Giuseppe Annino

Bioengineering 2025, 12(1), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering12010030 - 2 Jan 2025

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4001

Abstract

Traditional methods for evaluating tennis technique, such as visual observation and video analysis, are often subjective and time consuming. On the other hand, a quick and accurate assessment can provide immediate feedback to players and contribute to technical development, particularly in less experienced athletes. This study aims to validate the use of a single inertial measurement system to assess some relevant technical parameters of amateur players. Among other things, we attempt to search for significant correlations between the flexion extension and torsion of the torso and the lateral distance of the ball from the body at the instant of impact. This research involved a group of amateur players who performed a series of standardized gestures (forehands and serves) wearing a sensorized chest strap fitted with a wireless inertial unit. The collected data were processed to extract performance metrics. The percentage coefficient of variation for repeated measurements, Wilcoxon signed-rank test, and Spearman’s correlation were used to determine the system’s reliability. High reliability was found between sets of measurements in all of the investigated parameters. The statistical analysis showed moderate and strong correlations, suggesting possible applications in assessing and optimizing specific aspects of the technique, like the player’s distance to the ball in the forehand or the toss in the serve. The significant variations in technical execution among the subjects emphasized the need for tailored interventions through personalized feedback. Furthermore, the system allows for the highlighting of specific areas where intervention can be achieved in order to improve gesture execution. These results prompt us to consider this system’s effectiveness in developing an on-court mobile application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics of Physical Exercise)

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9 pages, 550 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analyzing How Skinfold Thickness Affects Log-Transformed EMG Amplitude–Power Output Metrics

by Matthew J. Kraydich, Jacob Gonzalez, Marcus A. Ziebold, Patrick N. Asmar, Amanda Chehab and Moh H. Malek

Bioengineering 2024, 11(12), 1294; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11121294 - 20 Dec 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1502

Abstract

Background: The purpose of this study was to determine whether accounting for skinfold thickness would reduce the variability observed on a subject-by-subject basis for the y-intercept and slope terms derived from the log-transformed EMG amplitude–power output relationship. We hypothesized that using skinfold thickness as a covariate would reduce the subject-by-subject variability in the y-intercept and slope terms and, therefore, indicate potential mean differences between muscle groups. Methods: Subjects had the skinfold from their three superficial quadriceps femoris muscles measured and then EMG electrodes placed over the three muscles. Thereafter, each subject performed an incremental single-leg knee-extensor ergometer exercise test to voluntary exhaustion. Results: The results indicated that using skinfold thickness as a covariate did not change the statistical outcome when comparing the mean values for the y-intercept or slope terms across the three superficial quadriceps femoris muscles. Conclusion: These findings suggest that there may be other factors that are influencing the subject-by-subject variability for the y-intercept and slope terms, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomechanics of Physical Exercise)

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