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Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications

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A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Computing and Artificial Intelligence".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 September 2025 | Viewed by 23623

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Dr. Kevin Ponto

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Wisconsin Institute for Discovery, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
Interests: virtual reality; augmented reality; mixed reality
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

As VR/AR technologies mature, their impact will continue to permeate every aspect of our lives. These technologies have shown themselves to be a powerful tool in creating novel methods for enhanced learning and training, providing experiences that would not otherwise be possible. Likewise, these technologies have been shown to have a transformative impact on healthcare, providing opportunities for everything from phobia treatment and surgical simulations to novel forms of physical therapy. Beyond this, VR and AR technologies have seen growing interest in the field of entertainment, providing new types of gaming experiences, enhancements to live events, and a new means of storytelling. Finally, these technologies have shown themselves to be powerful tools for boosting communication and social interaction, breaking down existing barriers of language and proximity.

This Special Issue aims to be at the forefront of this exciting journey, providing a forum for researchers to share their insights, discoveries, and creative endeavors. We encourage original submissions that explore the theoretical, methodological, and applicational landscapes of VR/AR, fostering a collaborative space for advancing this revolutionary field. In particular, articles may explore the theoretical underpinnings that guide the development of these technologies, examining questions of perception, embodiment, and human–computer interaction. Likewise, articles may explore the diverse methodologies driving innovation, from advancements in hardware and software to novel design practices and user-centered research. Finally, articles may explore the transformative potential of VR/AR in areas such as education, healthcare, training, and entertainment. Areas of interest include, but are not limited to, the following:

Explorations of the theoretical underpinnings that create virtual or mixed reality experiences;
Explorations of the human side of virtual and augmented reality, including work related to perception, embodiment, and user-interface design;
Explorations of the development of hardware and/or software solutions that create novel forms of virtual and/or augmented reality experiences;
Applications that utilize virtual and augmented reality technologies for novel purposes.

Original work that highlights the latest research and technical development is encouraged, but review papers and comparative studies are also welcome.

Dr. Kevin Ponto
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Applied Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

virtual reality
augmented reality
mixed reality
applications
methods
embodiment
perception
systems
theories

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 549 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cultural Differences in the Use of Augmented Reality Smart Glasses (ARSGs) Between the U.S. and South Korea: Privacy Concerns and the Technology Acceptance Model

by Se Jung Kim, Yoon Esther Lee and T. Makana Chock

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(13), 7430; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15137430 - 2 Jul 2025

Viewed by 316

Abstract

Augmented Reality Smart Glasses (ARSGs) allow users to engage in picture-taking and video recording, as well as real-time storage and sharing of pictures and videos through cloud services. Unlike smartphones, newer ARSGs resemble ordinary sunglasses, allowing for unobtrusive recording. As these devices become available on an international market, it is important to understand how different cultural attitudes towards privacy and the recording and sharing of images of bystanders could impact the acceptance and adoption of ARSGs. South Korea and the United States have vastly different culturally based perceptions of photography and recording in public. S. Korea has cultural and legal restrictions in place, while the U.S.’s values of freedom of expression and individual rights are reflected in limited restrictions. Accordingly, drawing upon the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), this paper explored the impact of privacy concerns on key constructs of the TAM for U.S. and S. Korean participants. This paper examined how Americans’ (U.S. = 402) and S. Koreans’ (S. Korea = 898) perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, attitude toward using, and behavioral intention to use ARSGs were impacted by privacy concerns. The results of this study found that S. Korean respondents had significantly greater privacy concerns about using ARSGs than U.S. respondents. However, they also had significantly more positive attitudes and greater behavioral intentions to use ARSGs. Path analyses examining ARSGs’ acceptance revealed that privacy concerns impacted attitudes towards ARSGs, but that these had a greater impact on U.S. participants than on Koreans. The results highlight the importance of considering nuanced cultural perspectives, specifically privacy concerns, in examining the development and adoption of new technologies. Raw data and scripts for this study are available to ensure reproducibility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications)

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16 pages, 1471 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interpersonal Synchrony Affects the Full-Body Illusion

by Hiromu Ogawa, Hirotaka Uchitomi and Yoshihiro Miyake

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(12), 6870; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15126870 - 18 Jun 2025

Viewed by 400

Abstract

The full-body illusion (FBI) is a phenomenon where individuals experience body perception not in their physical body but in an external virtual body. Previous studies have shown that the relationship between the self and the virtual body influences the occurrence and intensity of the FBI. However, the influence of interpersonal factors on the FBI has not been explored. This study investigated the effect of interpersonal synchrony on body perception through an evaluation experiment involving the FBI. Specifically, the participant and an experimenter clapped together while their movements were recorded by a video camera placed behind the participant and displayed to them via a head-mounted display (HMD). This setup presented synchronous visuotactile stimuli, aligning the visual feedback with the tactile sensations in the participant’s hands, to induce the FBI. The experimenter’s clapping rhythm was manipulated to either be synchronous or asynchronous with the participant’s rhythm, thus controlling the state of movement synchronization between the participant and the experimenter. The impact on the participant’s body perception was then assessed through subjective reports. The results indicated that when the clapping rhythm was synchronized with the other person, there was a significant reduction in touch referral to the participant’s virtual body. Additionally, there was a trend toward a reduction in ownership. This study demonstrated for the first time that interpersonal synchrony affects body perception. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications)

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23 pages, 12993 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mixed Reality-Based Robotics Education—Supervisor Perspective on Thesis Works

by Horst Orsolits, Antonio Valente and Maximilian Lackner

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(11), 6134; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15116134 - 29 May 2025

Viewed by 389

Abstract

This paper examines a series of bachelor’s and master’s thesis projects from the supervisor’s perspective, focusing on how Augmented Reality (AR) and Mixed Reality (MR) can enhance industrial robotics engineering education. While industrial robotics systems continue to evolve and the need for skilled robotics engineers grows, teaching methods have not changed. Mostly, higher education in robotics engineering still relies on funding industrial robots or otherwise on traditional 2D tools that do not effectively represent the complex spatial interactions involved in robotics. This study presents a comparative analysis of seven thesis projects integrating MR technologies to address these challenges. All projects were supervised by the lead author and showcase different approaches and learning outcomes, building on insights from previous work. This comparison outlines the benefits and challenges of using MR for robotics engineering education. Additionally, it shares key takeaways from a supervisory standpoint as an evolutionary process, offering practical insights for fellow educators/supervisors guiding MR-based robotics education projects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications)

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21 pages, 19467 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effectiveness of Virtual Reality Social Skills Training for Students with Autism and Social Difficulties Observed Through Behavior and Brain Waves

by Chia-Chi Yeh and Ying-Ru Meng

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(9), 4600; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15094600 - 22 Apr 2025

Viewed by 1565

Abstract

This study explored the effectiveness of VR-based social skills training for students with autism and typically developing students with social difficulties. Six autistic students and five typically developing students from upper elementary grades participated in the study. Participants were recruited based on their willingness to participate, ability to follow instructions, and absence of other significant learning or behavioral disorders. Five VR modules were developed, covering scenarios like classrooms, ticket booths, exhibitions, restaurants, and parks. These modules incorporated foundational social settings and more complex scenarios to enhance emotional regulation and adaptive responses, aligned with the 12-year Basic Education Curriculum Guidelines. The intervention took place from May to July 2023, with participants attending six 30–40 min VR sessions once or twice a week. Various assessment tools measured the impact, focusing on social responses, emotion recognition, and reactions to unexpected situations. Results indicated consistent improvements in conversation speed, expression effectiveness, and environmental adaptation. Social Skills Behavior Checklist scores showed significant differences between pre- and post-tests, while EEG data revealed enhanced empathetic responses among autistic students. Typically, developing students shifted from independent problem-solving to seeking social support. This study highlights the potential of VR as an effective tool for social skills development in both groups. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications)

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21 pages, 2834 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How Does Virtual Reality Training Affect Reaction Time and Eye–Hand Coordination? The Impact of Short- and Long-Term Interventions on Cognitive Functions in Amateur Esports Athletes

by Maciej Lachowicz, Anna Serweta-Pawlik, Alicja Konopka-Lachowicz, Dariusz Jamro and Grzegorz Żurek

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(8), 4346; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15084346 - 15 Apr 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2173

Abstract

This study investigates the efficacy of VR-based cognitive training using the game Beat Saber in enhancing cognitive functions in amateur e-athletes. Participants were divided into two groups, undergoing either 8-day or 28-day training. Significant improvements were observed in reaction time (RT) and eye–hand coordination (EHC) for both groups. Notably, cognitive gains in EHC were maintained over time, indicating the durability of training effects. The lack of significant differences between the short-term and long-term training outcomes suggests that even brief, intensive VR training can lead to substantial cognitive improvements, potentially obviating the need for extended training periods. The findings underscore the potential of immersive VR games like Beat Saber as effective tools for cognitive training. This study also highlights the relevance of VR technology beyond entertainment, demonstrating its application in cognitive enhancement. Given the rising popularity of esports and VR, integrating such technologies into cognitive training programs offers a promising avenue for improving cognitive functions in younger populations familiar with virtual environments. The results suggest that VR-based interventions can enhance cognitive functions which are crucial for both competitive esports and general cognitive functioning, making VR a versatile tool in various training contexts. Further research is recommended to explore the generalizability of these findings to other VR games and different populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications)

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25 pages, 6769 KiB

Open AccessArticle

NursingXR: Advancing Nursing Education Through Virtual Reality-Based Training

by Mohammad F. Obeid, Ahmed Ewais and Mohammad R. Asia

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(6), 2949; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15062949 - 9 Mar 2025

Viewed by 3384

Abstract

The increasing complexity of healthcare delivery and the advancements in medical technology have highlighted the necessity for improved training in nursing education. While traditional training methods have their merits, they often encounter challenges such as limited access to clinical placements, static physical simulations, and performance anxiety during hands-on practice. Virtual reality (VR) has been increasingly adopted for immersive and interactive training environments, allowing nursing students to practice essential skills repeatedly in realistic, risk-free settings. This study presents NursingXR, a VR-based platform designed to help nursing students master essential clinical skills. With a scalable and flexible architecture, NursingXR is tailored to support a variety of nursing lessons and adapt to evolving curricula. The platform has a modular design and offers two interactive modes: Training Mode, which provides step-by-step guided instruction, and Evaluation Mode, which allows for independent performance assessment. This article details the development process of the platform, including key design principles, system architecture, and implementation strategies, while emphasizing its utility and scalability. A mixed-methods evaluation involving 78 participants—both novices and experts—was conducted to evaluate the platform’s usability and user satisfaction. The results underscore NursingXR’s effectiveness in fostering an effective and engaging learning environment as well as its potential as a supplementary resource for nursing training. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications)

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16 pages, 4263 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Perceived Brightness and Resolution of Holographic Augmented Reality Retinal Scan Glasses

by Maximilian Rutz, Pia Neuberger, Simon Pick and Torsten Straßer

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(3), 1540; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15031540 - 3 Feb 2025

Viewed by 1050

Abstract

Augmented reality display performance depends strongly on features of the human visual system. This is especially true for retinal scan glasses, which use laser beam scanning and transparent holographic optical combiners. Human-centered approaches allow us to go beyond conventional optical metrology and evaluate display performance as it is perceived in actual augmented reality use cases. Here, we first present a theoretical formula for the retinal scan luminance and ambient contrast ratio calculated from optical powers, wavelengths, field of view, and human pupil diameter. As a promising insight, we found that the pupil diameter dependence is beneficial in assimilating the virtual image luminance to the ambient luminance. Second, we designed and performed a psychophysical experiment to assess perceived resolution in augmented reality settings using a fully functional retinal scan glasses prototype. We present the results of the trials and illustrate how this approach can be used in the further development of augmented reality smart glasses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications)

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25 pages, 19801 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Public Space Experiences: Evaluating Perception of Digital and Digitized Sculptures in Augmented Reality

by Isidora Đurić, Saša Medić, Dejan Ecet, Stanislav Grgić and Jelena Atanacković Jeličić

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(2), 870; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15020870 - 17 Jan 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2097

Abstract

Augmented reality (AR) technologies offer innovative possibilities for creating virtual artworks that seamlessly blend digital and physical elements, thereby enhancing public spaces and engaging users with both their environment and the AR content. Key concepts for assessing user experiences in AR environments include immersion, with subcategories that further elaborate on this concept. This research aims to explore the potential of AR as a tool for presenting and evaluating artworks in public spaces, with a particular focus on user engagement and immersion in AR content. Additionally, it seeks to determine whether significant differences in immersion levels exist between specific categories of virtual sculptures. Ten sculptures were displayed as mobile AR experiences in a selected public square. To achieve these objectives, a standardized questionnaire designed to measure immersion in location-based AR applications was adapted, validated, and applied. The results provide valuable insights into user experiences with different categories of AR artworks, such as digitized versus digitally created models and figurative versus abstract representations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications)

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14 pages, 3391 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Drone Rider: Foot Vibration Stimuli to Enhance Immersion and Flight Sensation in VR

by Kazuya Shimato, Yuta Goto and Shogo Okamoto

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(24), 12019; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142412019 - 22 Dec 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1212

Abstract

Simulating the experience of flight is a key objective of virtual reality (VR) technology. To enhance the sense of flying and immersion, we developed Drone Rider, a VR system that simulates free-flight atop a drone. In this study, we investigated whether delivering vibratory stimuli to the user’s feet could improve these sensations. While high-frequency drone propeller vibrations typically induce sensory numbness, alternative vibration patterns were explored. In Experiment 1, participants rated 13 different vibration patterns derived from various mechanical sounds, such as those from chainsaws, motorcycles, and washing machines. The motorcycle-based vibrations were most effective in enhancing both the sense of flight and immersion. In Experiment 2, we synthesized new vibration patterns by superimposing the highest-rated vibrations from Experiment 1, but no combination outperformed the original motorcycle vibration. These findings suggest that vibrations with multiple components below 100 Hz may reduce sensory adaptation and enhance the sense of flight and immersion in VR. This work provides valuable insights for developers aiming to optimize haptic feedback in VR flight simulators. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications)

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19 pages, 1643 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Technological Interface Components That Support Accelerated Learning in the Acquisition of Foreign Language Vocabulary

by David Passig, Ganit Eshel Kedmi and Adi Aharoni

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(22), 10436; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142210436 - 13 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1130

Abstract

There is a need to find innovative learning methods that enable accelerated learning of a foreign language. This study examined the effect of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) in acquiring a foreign language, which combines cognitive and emotional stimuli in the background. The study explored two factors related to the acquisition of a foreign language: the duration and scope of the learning process and the depth of internalization of the newly acquired language. Another objective was to assess the learning method in two learning environments, 2D and VR, to determine if the learning environment affects the learning results and leads to better vocabulary retention. One hundred native French speakers, with an average age of 47.5, participated in the study and had no prior knowledge of the newly acquired language. We randomly divided the participants into two groups (2D and VR). They studied 550 words in a new language for five days: 30 min each evening and 15 min in the morning. The post-learning test pointed out that both groups improved their vocabulary scores significantly. Approximately one month after the learning experience, we administered a knowledge retention test to 32 participants and found that the level of knowledge had been retained. Finally, background variables (e.g., gender, age, and previous knowledge of the newly acquired language) did not affect the learning results. The findings indicate that CALL, which integrates background cognitive and emotional stimuli in both learning environments, significantly accelerates learning pace, broadens the scope of newly acquired words, and ensures retention. The level of improvement observed in our study is notably higher than that reported in the literature for studies that had previously evaluated CALL and in-class language acquisition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications)

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20 pages, 8342 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Portable VR Welding Simulator

by Dariusz Michalak, Magdalena Rozmus, Jarosław Tokarczyk and Kamil Szewerda

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(17), 7687; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177687 - 30 Aug 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2450

Abstract

In many industries, there is a continuous high demand for skilled welders. Practical training in welding is cost- and time-intensive. To reduce this problem, VR welding simulators have been developed in recent years. They vary in terms of portability, hardware and software components, and functionalities. In this paper, a VR simulator to support practical training in MIG/MAG welding, as a highly portable and affordable solution, is presented. Its only hardware components are an off-the-shelf mobile VR set, a welding torch, and welding coupons that are manufactured using the FDM 3D printing method. The software part is accessed and used via an Internet browser. An important feature of the simulator is also the possibility to differ immersion in the working environment while carrying out virtual welding, which makes the solution also usable for users prone to cybersickness. The VR welding simulator was refined based on feedback obtained during pilot tests. The test participants found it a useful aid for welders’ training, which justifies further work on its development and integration into the teaching of welding in educational and training units. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications)

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19 pages, 5746 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Usability, Emotional Responses, Flow Experience, and Technology Acceptance in VR: A Comparative Analysis of Freeform Creativity and Goal-Directed Training

by Yu-Min Fang

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(15), 6737; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14156737 - 1 Aug 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2720

Abstract

This study compared two virtual reality (VR) interaction modes and assessed differences in characteristics, namely usability, emotional responses, flow experience, technology acceptance, activity effectiveness, preference, and satisfaction, aiming to gain insights for proposing design suggestions. The two types of VR interaction examined were freeform creativity, which enabled users to autonomously explore and create using the Gravity Sketch drawing program, and goal-directed training, which involved structured task completion by using a VR dumbbell exercise program developed with Unity. This study involved 33 participants and revealed three key findings. First, both VR modes exhibited excellent results in terms of flow experience, technology acceptance, preference, and satisfaction and evoked strong positive emotions. They also demonstrated shared VR advantages, including overcoming screen constraints and facilitating three-dimensional spatial activities. Second, compared with goal-directed training, freeform creativity elicited greater levels of pleasure, evoked more intense emotional responses, and demonstrated superior performance across related indicators. Third, in terms of usability, goal-directed training surpassed freeform creativity, particularly in overall responsiveness, simplicity, and clarity of information presentation, and learnability, underscoring the importance of enhancing usability for complex tasks in VR application design. These findings offer valuable insights for crafting more appealing, practical, and user-friendly VR systems in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications)

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10 pages, 1219 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deceptive Modulation of Actual and Perceived Effort While Walking Using Immersive Virtual Reality: A Teleoanticipatory Approach

by Trent Yamamoto, Trinabh K. Sahni, Corinne A. McCabe, Trevor L. Nguyen, August E. Blatney, Ross J. Lechner, Thalia H. Nguyen, Dominic M. Benna, Jason P. Farrales, Mitchell S. Mologne, Eric V. Neufeld and Brett A. Dolezal

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(14), 6072; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14146072 - 12 Jul 2024

Viewed by 1601

Abstract

Virtual reality and technology-driven ‘exergaming’ have grown in tandem to expand the possibilities of exercise. However, few studies have investigated these aspects together in the context of treadmill walking. This study examined the effects of immersive virtual reality (IVR) on heart rate (HR) and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) while walking on a treadmill at three different speeds, only one of which was disclosed to participants. Using a single-blinded, randomized control trial with a crossover research design, sixteen college-aged adults (eight females, mean age of 20.5 ± 1.2 years) were randomly assigned a testing order for six trials of treadmill walking. Three 10 min trials were conducted with IVR and three were conducted without on two separate days; a 3 min break was given in between trials. Borg RPE scores were assessed after each trial, while HR was monitored throughout. The IVR trials produced lower mean RPE scores in comparison to the non-IVR group at 3.5 and 3.7 mph. The IVR trials also yielded a lower mean HR compared to the non-IVR trials at the highest speed of 3.7 mph. These findings suggest that IVR may be able to attenuate RPE scores and HR while walking on a treadmill. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virtual and Augmented Reality: Theory, Methods, and Applications)

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