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Aerospace
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Lunar Construction
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Lunar Construction

A special issue of Aerospace (ISSN 2226-4310). This special issue belongs to the section "Astronautics & Space Science".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2026) | Viewed by 13708

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. M. Reza Emami

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute for Aerospace Studies, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
Interests: space systems engineering; concurrent engineering; mechatronics; space manipulators; planetary rovers; space systems miniaturization; spacecraft formation flying; asteroid engineering; intelligent robot teams; reconfigurable manipulators; legged locomotion for exploratory rovers
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue is a response to the recent renewal of global interest in lunar missions, which aim at not only scientific opportunities and prospects of deep space exploration, but also at demonstrating technologies that will extend our reach throughout the Solar System. A steppingstone for such goals is to establish a lunar base for human’s sustained presence on the Moon, through the development of viable and scalable lunar construction technologies as well as rules and regulations. The Special Issue attempts to present the state-of-the-art in the research and development of lunar construction methods, materials, systems, and codes and policies. Researchers and experts from multidisciplinary backgrounds are encouraged to submit their original research, review articles, and conceptual studies on topics that may include but are not limited to:

  • unique challenges posed by the lunar environment, such as extreme temperature variations, high radiation exposure, micrometeorite impacts, abrasive and electrostatically charged lunar regolith, etc.;
  • critical infrastructure required for a sustainable lunar base, including habitats, power stations, communication stations, landing pads, blast berms, etc.;
  • methods and materials that can be utilized for building the lunar base and its infrastructure, including additive manufacturing, regolith bonding, and raw materials, with an emphasis on in situ resource utilization;
  • machines, mechanisms and systems for lunar construction, such as excavators, cranes and conveyors, robot manipulators, etc.;
  • autonomous robotic operations for handling unplanned and unpredictable situations and enhancing performance through learning capabilities, using artificial intelligence technologies;
  • planning, systems engineering and execution of lunar construction missions, including costs, resources, logistics, programmatics, etc.; and
  • engineering codes, guidelines, regulations and international policies for lunar construction.

By bringing together cutting-edge research and diverse perspectives, this Special Issue aims to foster collaboration and drive innovation in the field of lunar construction.

Prof. Dr. M. Reza Emami
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Aerospace is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Journal Information

Aerospace is a peer-reviewed, open access journal of aeronautics and astronautics published monthly online by MDPI. The European Aerospace Science Network (EASN), and the ECATS International Association are affiliated with Aerospace and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

  • Open Access: free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
  • High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Inspec, Ei Compendex, and other databases.
  • Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Engineering, Aerospace) / CiteScore - Q2 (Aerospace Engineering)
  • Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 21.3 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2024).
  • Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
  • Impact Factor: 2.1 (2023); 5-Year Impact Factor: 2.4 (2023)

Keywords

  • lunar missions
  • deep space exploration
  • lunar construction
  • lunar environment

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

50 pages, 15395 KB  
Article
A Pathfinder Lunar Construction Mission Concept Using Regolith Filled Bags
by Cameron S. Dickinson, Fu Nan Shi, Ketan Vasudeva, Rudranarayan M. Mukherjee, Joshua Blanchard, Steve Dubrule, Julia Empey, Justin Kugler, Pooneh Maghoul, Andrew J. Ryan, Paul van Susante and Jekan Thangavelautham
Aerospace 2026, 13(3), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13030223 - 27 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1209
Abstract
Two challenges that have a permanent presence on the Moon are solar and cosmic radiation, as well as the large surface temperature variation between lunar day and night. To address these problems, we propose a lunar pathfinder mission concept that uses robotic systems [...] Read more.
Two challenges that have a permanent presence on the Moon are solar and cosmic radiation, as well as the large surface temperature variation between lunar day and night. To address these problems, we propose a lunar pathfinder mission concept that uses robotic systems to investigate whether regolith-filled bags can be used as a versatile construction medium for lunar surface structures and sensors to obtain data on the lunar regolith. The primary objectives of this mission are as follows: evaluation of the surface and subsurface regolith as fill material, lunar excavation using a robotic manipulator equipped with a bucket scoop, bag filling using a proposed robotic bagging system, the stacking of the filled bags with a robotic manipulator into a simple berm structure, and verification of the completed regolith-filled bag berm. Additional objectives include assessing the local radiation environment and testing Wi-Fi technology for use in and around a lunar surface station, such as the proposed Artemis Base Camp. Where possible, high TRL technologies are presented for each mission objective, which will be carried to the lunar surface on a Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) lander. A novel regolith bagging system concept is presented. The feasibility of the overall mission concept is studied by investigating key mission parameters, which shows the presented technologies fulfill all mission parameters. Potential extended mission concepts that exercise increased levels of autonomy are also presented, which may provide additional data to inform the development of this technology for future, at-scale, deployment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lunar Construction)
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24 pages, 32955 KB  
Article
SynBag: Synthetic Training Data for Autonomous Grasping of Regolith Bags in the Lunar Environment
by Oluwadamilola O. Kadiri, Mackenzie Annis, Isabel R. Higgon and Kenneth A. McIsaac
Aerospace 2026, 13(2), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13020204 - 22 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 619
Abstract
Accurate perception of deformable objects on the lunar surface is essential for autonomous construction and in situ resource utilization (ISRU) missions. However, the lack of representative lunar imagery limits the development of data-driven models for pose estimation and manipulation. We present SynBag 1.0, [...] Read more.
Accurate perception of deformable objects on the lunar surface is essential for autonomous construction and in situ resource utilization (ISRU) missions. However, the lack of representative lunar imagery limits the development of data-driven models for pose estimation and manipulation. We present SynBag 1.0, a large-scale synthetic dataset designed for training and benchmarking six-degree-of-freedom (6-DoF) pose estimation algorithms on regolith-filled construction bags. SynBag 1.0 employs rigid-body representations of bag meshes designed to approximate deformable structures with varied levels of feature richness. The dataset was generated using a novel framework titled MoonBot Studio, built in Unreal Engine 5 with physically consistent lunar lighting, low-gravity dynamics, and dynamic dust occlusion modeled through Niagara particle systems. SynBag 1.0 contains approximately 180,000 labeled samples, including RGB images, dense depth maps, instance segmentation masks, and ground-truth 6-DoF poses in a near-BOP format. To verify dataset usability and annotation consistency, we perform zero-shot 6-DoF pose estimation using a state-of-the-art model on a representative subset of the dataset. Variations span solar azimuth, camera height, elevation, dust state, surface degradation, occlusion level, and terrain type. SynBag 1.0 establishes one of the first open, physically grounded datasets for 6-DoF-object perception in lunar construction and provides a scalable basis for future datasets incorporating soft-body simulation and robotic grasping. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lunar Construction)
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15 pages, 5355 KB  
Article
High-Energy Detonation Based Lunar Regolith Simulation for Resource Utilization
by Junyue Tang, Antong Zhao, Shengyuan Jiang, Yang Li, Yu Li, Yi Yang, Zongquan Deng, Xi Wang, Xiangrun Zhao and Tifei Han
Aerospace 2026, 13(1), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace13010106 - 22 Jan 2026
Viewed by 929
Abstract
As international lunar exploration shifts from mainly understanding the Moon to equally prioritizing its utilization, the requirement for highly similar lunar regolith simulants has grown. Current simulants, produced mainly by mechanical crushing and sieving, reproduce mechanical properties but lack space-weathered microstructures. However, this [...] Read more.
As international lunar exploration shifts from mainly understanding the Moon to equally prioritizing its utilization, the requirement for highly similar lunar regolith simulants has grown. Current simulants, produced mainly by mechanical crushing and sieving, reproduce mechanical properties but lack space-weathered microstructures. However, this absence results in significant discrepancies in critical properties such as thermal conductivity and adsorption–desorption behavior, which undermine the reliability of ground-based resource utilization tests. To address this issue, this paper proposes a new preparation method for lunar regolith simulants, which simulates the micrometeorite impact process by utilizing the instantaneous high temperature, pressure, and high-velocity impact generated from the detonation of high-energy explosives in a sealed container. Preliminary experiments confirm that the method produces agglutinates, glass spherules, and porous structures resembling those in lunar regolith. The thermal conductivity of the modified simulant decreases significantly, approaching that of lunar regolith. Further refinement of the process, supported by quantitative 3D characterization, will enable the production of even more similar simulants, providing a reliable material foundation for lunar exploration, in situ resource utilization, and lunar construction activities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lunar Construction)
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46 pages, 2987 KB  
Article
A Method for Lunar Surface Autonomy Certification: Application to a Construction Pathfinder Mission
by Cameron S. Dickinson, Diba Alam, Raymond Francis, Laura M. Lucier, Anh Nguyen, Noa Prosser, Steven L. Waslander and Paul Grouchy
Aerospace 2025, 12(12), 1115; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12121115 - 18 Dec 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1948
Abstract
Developing autonomous technologies will enable humanity to considerably expand our lunar and space exploration capabilities. Along with the technical challenges of developing autonomous technologies, there is also the issue of trust—stakeholders are often resistant to their use for a variety of psychological reasons. [...] Read more.
Developing autonomous technologies will enable humanity to considerably expand our lunar and space exploration capabilities. Along with the technical challenges of developing autonomous technologies, there is also the issue of trust—stakeholders are often resistant to their use for a variety of psychological reasons. Nevertheless, several successful methods for gradually building trust have been developed for both terrestrial and space applications. Relevant case studies provide insights on how trust is built for stakeholders when it comes to self-driving vehicles, Artificial Intelligence in aviation, space station operations, satellite rendezvous missions, and Mars rover surface operations. Based on these case studies, we propose a generalized method for building trust with stakeholders and have applied it to a lunar construction pathfinder mission currently in development. Metrics for assessing success criteria for autonomous systems are provided as a means to progress through the proposed phases of autonomy deployment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lunar Construction)
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25 pages, 3417 KB  
Article
A Compact Concrete Mixing System for High Quality Specimen Production in Space: Automated MASON Concrete Mixer
by Julian H. Mertsch, Julian T. I. Müller, Stefan Kleszczynski, Bernd Rattenbacher and Martina Schnellenbach-Held
Aerospace 2025, 12(11), 954; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12110954 - 24 Oct 2025
Viewed by 1102
Abstract
Establishing a sustainable human presence on the Moon and Mars will require the use of locally available resources for construction. A binder material similar to concrete is a promising candidate, provided that its production and performance under reduced gravity can be reliably understood. [...] Read more.
Establishing a sustainable human presence on the Moon and Mars will require the use of locally available resources for construction. A binder material similar to concrete is a promising candidate, provided that its production and performance under reduced gravity can be reliably understood. Previous microgravity investigations demonstrated the feasibility of mixing cementitious materials in space but produced irregular or low-quality specimens that limited standardized mechanical testing. To address these limitations, the MASON (Material Science on Solidification of Concrete) team developed the first-generation MASON Concrete Mixer (MCM), which enabled the safe production of cylindrical specimens aboard the International Space Station (ISS). However, its fully manual operation introduced variability and required significant astronaut time. Building on this foundation, the development of an automated MCM prototype is presented in this study. It integrates motorized mixing and programmable process control into the established containment architecture. This system enables reproducible specimen production by eliminating operator-dependent variations while reducing crew workload. In comparison to manually mixed samples, the automated MCM demonstrated reduced variability in the tested concrete properties. The automated MCM represents a first step toward autonomous space instrumentation for high-quality materials research and provides a scalable path to uncrewed missions and future extraterrestrial construction technologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lunar Construction)
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52 pages, 10234 KB  
Article
Lunar Robotic Construction System Using Raw Regolith: Design Conceptualization
by Ketan Vasudeva and M. Reza Emami
Aerospace 2025, 12(11), 947; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12110947 - 22 Oct 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4570
Abstract
This paper outlines the inception, conceptualization and primary morphological selection of a robotic system that employs raw lunar regolith for constructing protective berms and shelters on the Moon’s surface. The lunar regolith is considered the most readily available material for in situ resource [...] Read more.
This paper outlines the inception, conceptualization and primary morphological selection of a robotic system that employs raw lunar regolith for constructing protective berms and shelters on the Moon’s surface. The lunar regolith is considered the most readily available material for in situ resource utilization on the Moon. The lunar environment is characterized, and the operational task is defined, informing the development of high-level system requirements and a functional analysis through the glass-box method. The key morphological areas are identified, and candidate concepts are evaluated using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). The evaluation process employs a new approach to aggregating expert data through the ZMII method to establish priorities of the design criteria, which eliminates the need for pairwise comparisons in data collection. Each criterion is associated with a specific and quantifiable metric, which is then used to evaluate the morphologies during the AHP. The selected morphologies are determined as: a vibrating hopper for intake (normalized decision value of 27.5% out of 5 candidate solutions), a roller system for container deployment and filling (26.2% out of 7), a magnetic RCU interface (22.6% out of 7), and a 4-DoF manipulator to place the RCUs in the environment (23.6% out of 5). The final morphology is selected by combining the decision values across the primary morphological areas into a unified decision metric. This is followed by the preliminary selection of the system’s surrounding architecture. The design conceptualization is performed within a real-life operational scenario, namely, to create a blast berm for the landing pad using the lunar regolith provided by an existing excavator. The next phase of the work will include the system’s detailed design, as well as investigations on the requirements for a variety of construction tasks on the lunar surface. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lunar Construction)
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20 pages, 2544 KB  
Article
A Lunar Landing Pad from IRSU Materials: Design and Validation of a Structural Element
by A. Pastore, M. Agozzino and C. G. Ferro
Aerospace 2025, 12(9), 781; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace12090781 - 29 Aug 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2231
Abstract
A lunar landing pad (LLP) represents essential initial infrastructure for establishing sustainable lunar settlements. This study investigates the feasibility of constructing LLPs through in situ resource utilization (ISRU), focusing on an innovative composite material comprising lunar regolith and the high-performance thermoplastic Polyether Ether [...] Read more.
A lunar landing pad (LLP) represents essential initial infrastructure for establishing sustainable lunar settlements. This study investigates the feasibility of constructing LLPs through in situ resource utilization (ISRU), focusing on an innovative composite material comprising lunar regolith and the high-performance thermoplastic Polyether Ether Ketone (PEEK). The proposed manufacturing approach involves mechanically blending regolith with PEEK granules, compacting the mixture in a mold, and thermally processing it to induce polymer melting and binding. Experimental analysis indicates that a modest binder fraction (15 wt. % PEEK) yields a robust composite with a flexural strength of 14.6 MPa, although exhibiting inherently brittle characteristics. Compaction pressure emerges as a crucial factor influencing material performance. Utilizing these findings, hexagonal modular tiles were designed as the fundamental LLP elements, specifically engineered to optimize manufacturing simplicity, mechanical robustness, stackability for redundancy, and ease of replacement or repair. The tile geometry strategically mitigates brittleness-induced vulnerabilities by avoiding stress concentrations. Explicit finite element analyses validated tile performance under simulated lunar landing conditions corresponding to the European Large Logistic Lander specifications. Results demonstrated safe landing velocities between 0.1 and 0.7 m/s, governed by the binder content and compaction pressure. A clearly identified linear correlation between the binder fraction and permissible impact velocity enables predictive tailoring of the material composition, confirming the suitability and scalability of thermoplastic–regolith composites for future lunar infrastructure development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Lunar Construction)
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