Mental representations in various bodily formats (e.g., somatosensory, interoceptive, motoric) have been suggested to play a pivotal role in social cognition. However, data on children and adolescents are lacking. This study aims to investigate whether individual differences in the sensing of the internal body state, in terms of interoceptive accuracy (IAcc) and sensibility (IS), and in the action-oriented (i.e., body schema) and non-action-oriented (i.e., visuo-spatial body map) body representations (BR) influence a core component of social cognition, namely empathy, during early adolescence. A total of 30 healthy teens (mean age 13.2 years) completed an empathy questionnaire, a heartbeat tracking task probing IAcc, an IS questionnaire including visceral and somatosensorial factors, and a computerized battery consisting of action-oriented and non-action-oriented BR tasks. The correlational analysis showed that as IAcc increased, empathy levels decreased, while as IS increased, empathy levels increased, especially when the visceral factor was taken into account. No association was found between action/non-action-oriented BR and empathy. These preliminary results suggest that teens with a higher sensibility towards visceral body changes also show a higher tendency to feel and understand another's emotional state. In contrast, teens with higher IAcc for cardiac signals show a lower empathy level, possibly due to a more stable body self-representation that prevents the self–other overlap necessary in some forms of empathy. As a corollary finding, the opposed relationship between these interoceptive dimensions and empathy confirms that IS and IA are two distinct constructs that can impact cognitive and affective abilities differently. Full article

Background: COVID-19 has become a global concern. Many risk factors have been identified. Down syndrome, which is 21 trisomy, affects the mental and physical health of the patient. The syndrome has many neurological complications, which include structural changes, mental retardation, young-onset Alzheimer’s disease, strokes and basal ganglia damage. Much less data is available regarding the association of COVID with Down syndrome. Objective: The objective of this systemic review is to focus on the different evidence available related to the association of COVID-19 with Down syndrome. Method: PubMed/Medline, Science Direct, Web of Science, and Scopus databases were used to find the research undertaken related to the association of COVID with Down syndrome up to 2022. Results: this systemic review includes eight studies. All studies showed that Down syndrome is associated with severe COVID and can lead to hospitalization. Discussion: Down syndrome leads to severe immune dysregulation. Scientists are investigating the exact mechanism behind the dysregulation of the immune system caused by trisomy 21 or Down syndrome, but research on it is still ongoing. In DS, chromosome 21 activates multiple genes which cause hyperactivity of the immune system. Chromosome 21 encodes the following immune regulators: interferon (IFN) receptors, Interleukin (IL)-10, IL-22, and IL-26. Immune and non-immune cells are sensitive to Interferon(IFN) and many studies report that in the absence of any infection there is still hyperactivity in T cells due to Interferon(IFN) in DS patients. Interferon response, which is involved in the antiviral response, is vigorous in DS patients and leads to cytokine storm. Recent studies showed that COVID infections are driven by an exacerbated immune response to the virus, leading to cytokine storm, acute respiratory distress syndrome, thromboembolic processes, and multi-organ failure. Conclusion: Patients with COVID-19 and Down syndrome are more vulnerable and should be prioritized for vaccination. Full article

Background: After the age of 20, the brain’s high-level functions, such as working memory and control inhibition ability, decline year by year. This decline is usually associated with the atrophy of the brain’s structure, such as the lateral prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. The present study indicates that physical activity can improve brain cognition by influencing the level of neurotransmitters in the body and delaying the atrophy of certain functional regions. Objective: In this paper, we discuss the relation of different sports and brain structure and function, analyze the classification of aerobic, anaerobic, and coordinating sports, and discuss the benefits of sports intervention from the view of functional MRI, neuroendocrine, and event-related potential. Methods: Through a large amount of literature collection, the words “exercise, sport, cognitive function, brain plastic” and other words were searched in the Web of Science, PubMed, CNKI Chinese databases, and the relevant inclusion criteria were established based on research requirements, and the final document was screened. Results: ① The volume of hippocampal gyrus, prefrontal lobe, and basal ganglia of athletes with high physical fitness level or regular physical activity was larger; ② physical activity has a positive relationship with cognitive function related to the brain structure; ③ sports activities can promote the executive function of healthy people at different ages, children, and elderly people with cognitive impairment. The above changes may be related to the increase in blood volume in brain functional areas and insulin-like growth factor endocrine substances promoted by sports activities. Full article

Despite the significant advances in modern medicine, the problem of perinatal hypoxic CNS damage in children occupies one of the leading places in modern neonatology. Hypoxic damage to the fetal brain is the cause of delayed psycho-linguistic and motor development, mental insufficiency, movement disorders, cerebral palsy, disability and severe cases of neonatal mortality. Chronic prenatal hypoxia (PH) leads to biochemical and structural changes in the developing brain and, as a consequence, to the pathological development of the fetal brain, the development of neurological deficit not only immediately after birth, but also in the late periods of postnatal ontogenesis. The protein factors identified in recent decades, which are involved in the mechanisms of urgent and long-term adaptation to hypoxia (HIF1), can serve as specific targets for pharmacological action, opening up promising opportunities for the search for new effective drugs for the treatment of hypoxic CNS lesions in children. The aim of the research: To study the ability of a number of drugs (cerebrocurin, angiolin, glutoredoxin, thiotriazoline, L-arginine, mexidol and piracetam) to modulate the level of HIF-1α expression in the cerebral cortex of rats after chronic PH. Materials and methods: The studies were carried out on 90 male rats of two months of age, obtained from females in which, from the 16th day of pregnancy, chronic PH was modeled in the offspring. Newborn animals were divided into 9 groups: 1st—intact animals obtained from females with normal physiological pregnancy, which received 1 mL of physiological solution; 2nd—control animals after PH, 3rd–9th groups—animals after PH, which after birth were intraperitoneally injected with the drug in an effective dose (cerebrocurin—150 μL/kg, piracetam—500 mg/kg, angiolin—50 mg/kg, thiotriazoline—50 mg/kg, mexidol—100 mg/kg, L-arginine—200 mg/kg, glutoredoxin—200 μg/kg, i. p). Real-time reverse transcription polymer chain reaction (RT-PCR) was used to assess the state of HIF-1α expression. The results of the study were processed using the statistical package of the licensed program “STATISTICA for Windows 6.1”. The significance of differences between the experimental groups was assessed using the nonparametric Mann–Whitney U test. Differences with a significance level of more than 95% (p < 0.05) were considered significant. Results: It was found that in animals after PH, the expression level of HIF-1α mRNA is 0.331 ± 0.0002 c.u., which is three times lower than in intact animals. Analysis of the results of the prolonged action of the studied preparations on the level of HIF-1α mRNA expression shows that the use of the studied preparations led to an increase in the level of HIF-1α mRNA expression, except for animals receiving L-arginine (0.37 ± 0.001 c.u.). Cerebrocurin increased this indicator by 15.8 times (5.24 ± 0.002 c.u.), piracetam—by 82% (0.603 ± 0.0003 c.u.), angiolin—by 13.9 times (4.61 ± 0.004 c.u.), glutoredoxin—8.5 times (2.80 ± 0.002 c.u.), thiotriazoline—6.2 times (2.06 ± 0.001 c.u.), mexidol—2.3 times (0.77 ± 0.006 c.u.). The indices of HIF-1α mRNA expression in rats after administration of cerebrocurin and angiolin are maximal and significantly exceed those of all experimental groups. The conducted studies show that modeling of prenatal hypoxia and its pharmacological correction changes the pattern of HIF-1α mRNA expression. An increase in the expression of HIF-1α mRNA directly indicates the activation of certain genes of the cellular genome associated with the action of stimulating signals on the activation of adaptive-compensatory intracellular mechanisms in cells in response to the harmful effects of PH. Conclusions: Thus, HIF-1α is a promising target for neuroprotection after PH exposure. Cerebrocurin and angiolin can be considered as promising agents for correcting the negative consequences of chronic PH in newborns. Full article

The crosstalk between obesity, diabetes, steatohepatitis, and dementia creates a controversial scenario when also studied using animal models. In the present work, this crosstalk was investigated in male and female 3xTg-AD mice for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) at different ages/stages and compared to sex- and age-matched counterparts with normal aging. The relevance of the genetic background and classical intrinsic factors (AD genotype and sex) were determined using a retrospective analysis of population data and an experimental design. Age/stage of disease was considered a source of stochastic and non-stochastic factors. Data from two different colonies of 3xTg-AD mice with distinct genetic backgrounds were analyzed to verify the functional interplay between the studied factors. Data from asymptomatic/prodromal to early/advanced stages of the disease were screened. Then, all factors’ relationships were studied in an experimental design using the same set of animals. The population data unveiled that the genetic background and sex effects were confirmed with regards to the variable body weight, with changes during disease development and progress. Sexual dimorphism was found as an important factor in glucose metabolism. Statistically significant differences in glucose tolerance and behavioral assessment (exploration, anxiety, and cognition in a two-days open-field paradigm) were found when all the factors were analyzed. In summary, the present study shows that all the studied factors should always be considered when assessing the outcome of the research interventions in the field because they have a distinct functional interplay through the process of normal and AD-pathological aging and from a gendered perspective. Full article

Epidermolysis Bullosa (EB) is a chronic disease with multiple clinical presentations, depending on the subtype. It is characterized by the structural fragility of skin and tissues which results in lesions. Its low prevalence contributes to the lack of knowledge of the disease by the general population and the health sector. The disorder’s heterogeneity adds challenges in describing psycho-social affectations. Therefore, our current international project searches for reference models for children and young people with EB, as well as the elaboration of a guidebook with different life stories for them to learn about skills and strategies proven to help to achieve personal/professional success despite the EB condition. In the present work, a qualitative and phenomenological interview with Karen Puga, an expert adult patient with dystrophic EB from Mexico, explored several social dimensions/ages affected in EB and their impact on self-esteem. The semi-structured interview depicted several life events and experiences related to her psycho-social maturation that the patient identified as the most negative or positive. The most severe obstacles were experienced during childhood in the scholarly scenario. However, some of those classmates later became friendly adults, providing evidence of the temporality of some adverse life events and the relevance of maturation and resilience processes, both of herself and her counterparts. Her parents’ professional profiles (nurses) and the essential role of her sister were described as foundational for her well-being and self-esteem. Multidimensional understanding of affective relationships, sexuality, and positive engagement in professional activities illustrated the development of positive dimensions of her adulthood despite the complexity of psycho-social factors in EB. Full article

Epidermolysis bullosa (EB), also known as Butterfly skin, is a term for a heterogeneous group of rare genodermatosis disorders resulting in painful mucocutaneous blisters and extreme fragility with minor trauma or friction. The low prevalence and heterogeneity of EB, clinically classified into 4 major groups and over 30 subtypes, lead to significant psychological and social research constraints. An inverse correlation between disease severity and quality of life in patients and their families has been described. Psycho-social aspects in people with more severe subtypes of EB and body dysmorphia refer to loss of self-esteem and coping skills, low self-control, intense fear, anxiety, depression, and social isolation. On the other hand, acute, chronic, and procedural pain, common comorbidities in EB, can negatively affect cognition and interfere with academic and professional achievements. Here, we present the first case report of a current international project that searches for reference models for children and young people with EB and the creation of a guidebook with different life stories of strategies and skills proven to help achieve academic/professional success despite EB's condition. We analyze the semistructured interview with Sonia Ortiz Romero, alias ‘Mariposa de cristal’, an expert patient with dystrophic EB and co-founder of ‘Son mis alas, I.A.P’ (‘They are my wings, NGO’), together with his brother Marcos Humberto. Her storytelling illustrates challenges, rewards, and limiting factors that make their Mexican association a successful case in helping other EB patients in Santiago Tianguistenco with their physical, psychological, and social well-being, as well as raising social awareness. Full article

Perceptual oscillations between different interpretations of unchanging, ambiguous stimuli have been studied for decades, being that this special phenomenon is considered a key towards the understanding of perceptual awareness and, ultimately, consciousness. The finding that brain dynamics (as registered, for example, through magneto- and electro-encephalography—M/EEG) of the spontaneous alternations between the percepts reflect the intrinsic dynamic properties of the (unconscious) perceptual processing impacts on many theoretical scenarios which consider perception as an inference process, and all other subserving cognitive processes as working in a coordinated and coherent way. Amongst cognitive processes, cognitive flexibility is the one sharing the most characteristics with the perceptual alternations, typical of bistable phenomena, these being the ability to change a rule or accordingly inhibit certain information differently between individuals; this “switching” ability has been shown to be correlated with the general “functioning” of a person (this, in turn, being reflected by the individual neural system organization and dynamics). A preliminary behavioral study (N = 26) has been performed to provide evidence that all these aspects are indeed correlated. Performances in computerized classic experimental paradigms (Stroop, Simon Task, Task-switching Tests, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test) have been correlated to perceptual switches and percept durations of spontaneous and voluntary alternations of the Necker Cube and with scores in Cognitive Flexibility, Barrat’s Impulsiveness, DASS-21, and the short version of the Big Five questionnaires. Future studies with EEG and brain connectivity measures can provide a more direct insight on the brain dynamics of this perceptual and cognitive processing, shedding light on the mechanisms at the basis of this supposed concerted coherent synchronization. Full article

Bizarre behaviors (BB) are elicited in animals during stressful conditions and represent behavioral markers of disease/sickness relevant to animal welfare. These behaviors are disregarded in most experimental screenings due to their low incidence and short duration, despite their translational value mimicking disruptive behaviors associated with neurological/psychiatric diseases. However, we previously reported experimental conditions with conspicuous BB incidence: (1) 3xTg-AD mice for Alzheimer’s disease vs. wild-types; (2) the open-field test (OF) vs. other tests; (3) +6 months of age; (4) female sex; (5) older age (+13 months) male 3xTg-AD mice also exhibit more circling behavior (BB-CB) than control mice; (6) early neonatal handling reduces BB; whereas (7) BB are enhanced by d-galactose-induced accelerated aging. In the present work, we studied the BB patterns elicited in the OF using a longitudinal design with sixty-six 13-month-old male/female mice with normal/AD-pathological aging under social/isolated housing conditions, and aimed to explore the effects of intrinsic (genotype, sex) and extrinsic (environment) factors (n = 7–8/group). BB were recorded in 39% of animals. Sex, re-testing at an older age, and genotype factors differentiated two BB patterns: higher circling behavior (BB-CB, n = 12) in wild-types and males, but higher backward movements (BB-BM, n = 14) in 3xTg-AD, female, and older age mice. Isolation increased the incidence of freezing, mostly in 3xTg-AD mice, and exerted a modulatory role in BB, but interaction effects with other factors led to a residual significance. The results point to BB-BM as the most pervasive BB pattern in this animal model, which is also sensitive to the progress of aging/disease. Full article

The severity of sensory involution during aging is critical for perceiving and recognizing the world. In addition, sensory deficits significantly increase the risk of older adults’ biological, mental, and social decline. Conversely, the loss of smell is an early biomarker of neurodegeneration in Alzheimer’s (AD) and Parkinson’s diseases. The worsening of these neurodegenerative diseases also involves physical deterioration, social deficits, and isolation. In the present translational work, a new food finding test (FFT) olfactory paradigm without food deprivation was used to investigate olfaction in old animals. The effects of social isolation in 12-months-old female 3xTg-AD mice, a genetic model of AD, and their age-matched wild-type counterparts, the gold-standard C57BL/6 mice, were also studied. The animals were placed in a test cage and were observed until reaching the criteria for three goal-directed behaviors, ‘Sniffing’, ‘Finding’ and ‘Eating’, towards the hidden food. Video recordings were analyzed blind to the genotype and social condition in order to determine the behaviors’ ethogram and functional correlations. The results showed that the FFT paradigm without food deprivation elicited longer ethograms than previously reported with the standard overnight food deprivation protocol. However, it identified the genotype-dependent olfactory signatures in normal and AD-pathological aging. Social isolation slightly increased the latencies, but the olfactory signatures were preserved. However, a functional derangement was detected since the internal correlation among the three goal-directed behaviors was lost under isolation. In conclusion, the new paradigm without overnight deprivation was sensitive to genotype and isolation changes in the ethogram and function and can be used to study old animals. Full article

Neural interfaces, such as microarrays and probes, consist of many electrodes for stimulating and recording purposes simultaneously. The multi-functional neural interface can suffer from many types of artefacts and noise, such as long-term use, environment, surrounding instruments and living subjects. This paper proposes a filtering approach by enhancing the band-pass and band-stop selection of the Kaiser Window finite-impulse response (FIR) filter based on the occurrence histogram of spectrum bands of neuronal signals in all channels. The implementation of the approach shows a clear enhancement of electrocorticogram (ECoG) signals by keeping the most important features and components, such as the interictal spikes. Full article

The aim of our study was to estimate the association of cigarette smoking with burnout syndrome in medical students at the University of Kragujevac, Serbia. Burnout syndrome is defined as a triad of symptoms: emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and academic inefficiency. Cigarette smoking was significantly associated with cynicism, with smokers often showing higher cynicism compared to non-smokers (40.7% vs. 32.3%; p = 0.023). Additionally, cigarette smoking was significantly associated with higher academic inefficiency, with smokers often showing academic inefficiency compared with non-smokers (43.6% vs. 35.0%; p = 0.022). Cigarette smoking was not significantly associated (44.9% vs. 38.5%; p = 0.096) with emotional exhaustion. Full article

This study aimed to evaluate the impact of face masks used for COVID-19 prevention on emotion recognition in facial expressions. Seventy-two (72) adult participants (48 females, 24 males) attempted to correctly identify different emotions displayed by a female and a male actor’s facial expressions. Simulated emotions included neutrality, happiness, surprise, disgust, sadness, fear, and anger at two levels of intensity, with or without wearing a surgical mask. Accuracy rates of facial expression recognition and response times were collected. The GLM analysis for the accuracy revealed a main effect of emotions (F (5.350) = 57.47, p < 0.001) and face masks (without > with) (F (1.70) = 338.95, p < 0.001), as well as a three-way interaction between emotions, masks, and actors (F (5.350) = 9.69, p < 0.001). Disgust was the least recognized emotion, followed by sadness, while happiness, anger, and surprise were the easiest to identify. The analysis of the response times suggested that, when partially covered by a mask, facial expressions can be more ambiguous and difficult to read, and a larger amount of time was required to provide a response. In line with the results on accuracy, sadness was generally the most difficult emotion to identify. Male and female participants had similar response times. Globally, these results show that wearing masks can significantly reduce the ability to detect emotions in facial expressions. However, when emotions are expressed at higher intensity levels, this effect may be mitigated. Full article

Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) patients suffer from circadian rhythm alterations involving sleep, thermoregulation, and movement activity disorders. The latter affects their daily patterns of physical activity (PA) and willingness to perform voluntary exercise, impeding benefit from routine PA practice. Neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS) have been postulated to influence human physical activity engagement. However, there is no clarity on whether animal models can replicate these effects. Herein, we evaluated the behavioral circadian rhythmicity of voluntary physical exercise (VPE) in a group of 14-month-old 3xTg-AD animals of both sexes at advanced stages of the disease and compared their performance according to the presence of NPS-like symptoms. Mice (n = 9 females and n = 7 males) were provided with an in-cage running wheel for 30 days with daily control of the diurnal and nocturnal amount of VPE performed. Using a Linear Mixed Model Analysis, we found that all animals kept similar nocturnal patterns of VPE. However, sex-dependent differences associated with previous novelty inhibition (NI) response, an NPS-like symptom frequently observed in this model, were found during diurnal periods. Thus, males with high NI showed significantly higher levels of VPE compared with high NI females. No sex differences were found in low NI animals. Our results suggest that the influence of NPS-like symptoms in VPA engagement may vary depending on the sex of 3xTg-AD mice. Further studies are needed to help us to elucidate molecular and genetic factors associated with these differences. Full article

In this descriptive epidemiological study, age-specific rates for attention-deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) incidence among children (0–14 years) were presented (per 100,000). Joinpoint regression analysis was applied to calculate the average annual percent change (AAPC) with the corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI) to evaluate trends in 1990–2019. Global ADHD incidence was nearly threefold that of girls (307.9 and 114.4 per 100,000, respectively) in 2019. Trends for global ADHD incidence were significantly decreasing both in boys (AAPC = −0.4%, 95% CI = −0.4 to −0.3) and girls (AAPC = −0.4%, 95% CI = −0.5 to −0.3). Full article

Depression, stress, anxiety disorders, and PTSD are some of the mental health problems that are prevalent among immigrant populations despite being underdiagnosed. Stigma, difficulties in adapting, cultural barriers, and reduced access to mental health support can seriously hamper their ability to build resilience and recover. Other limitations include assuming that therapies can be universally applied, the lack of sufficient evidence on mental health issues of this population, and the use of therapeutic models developed on Caucasian populations. Here, professional guidance to find the meaning of life through interventions such as logotherapy could help them in this process. The present work systematically reviewed studies investigating the effectiveness of logotherapy in diverse populations and its relevance to a Muslim immigrant population in Europe. Following PRISMA guidelines and the keywords ‘logotherapy, mental health problems, immigrant, and treatment’, the search identified 16 relevant studies conducted since 2005. The studies revealed that logotherapy could be implemented through paradoxical intention, de-reflection, Socratic dialogue, and attitude modification. All these techniques have the potential to help the client to realize long-term relief for underlying stressors associated with migration and settling in a new location. Though data on logotherapy are still scarce, it is evident that it deserves more research so that a structured, evidence-based, and effective therapy for Muslim immigrants in Europe can be developed and tested. In this regard, we propose that the four logotherapy techniques have huge potential in helping psychiatrists develop an effective therapy for mental health problems among these immigrant populations confronting adversity. Full article

The Solitonic Windkessel model, which is successful for explaining the intracranial aneurysmal rupture based on the Windkessel-type hemodynamic circulation modelling, is employed for explaining unexpected and sudden intracranial aneurysmal rupture. In this paper, by focusing on the appearance of resonance, some aneurysmal ruptures are shown to possibly arise unexpectedly and suddenly as a resonance phenomenon. Full article

Objective: The aim of this study was to describe the presentation and outcomes of patients with granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA) presenting with neurologic involvement according to ACR criteria. Methods: Consecutive newly diagnosed GPA patients who had undergone follow-up for at least six months between 2013 and 2018 at Amir-A’lam hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, were retrospectively analyzed. Results: Patients were divided into two groups: those with nervous system involvement at either disease diagnosis or follow-up (89 patients) and those without neurological symptoms until the last follow-up (131 patients). From all patients reviewed in this study, 68 (30.9%) patients died during the follow-up period. Among the deceased patients, 18 (20.2%) were in the non-neurologic group, and 50 (38.2%) were in the neurologic group. The median (IQR) of BVAS in 220 patients was 11.0 (18.0-8.0) in total: 10.0 (14.5-7.50) and 12.0 (21.0-8.0) in the non-neurologic and the neurologic groups, respectively. The score of BVAS in the neurologic group was significantly higher than in the non-neurologic group (p = 0.039). Of 131 patients, sensory neuropathy was found in 99 patients (75.5%). In total, 95 patients (72.5%) complained of hearing loss, which was diagnosed as sensory–neural hearing loss; 27 patients (20.6%) complained of headache; 13 (9.9%) had a history of cerebrovascular events; 5 (3.8%) had an episode of seizure or loss of consciousness (LOC); and 3 (2.3%) had mononeuritis multiplex. Two patients (1.5%) were diagnosed with meningitis and two (1.7%) with encephalitis. Conclusion: According to this study, neurological symptoms are an undeniable part of the disease course for GPA patients, and these symptoms are associated with disease severity, prognosis, and response to treatment. Full article

The identification of genes that are expressed differentially in the diseased versus healthy individual give relevant information regarding the pathology of the disease. The identification of DEGs can be a significant step in the field of clinical and pharmaceutical research. They can act as a potent biomarker, therapeutic target, or gene signature for the early diagnosis of the disease. Intellectual disability is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects those at the fetal stage. Timely diagnosis of the disease can help in preventing severe neurodevelopmental delay in the child. In the current study, a meta-analysis approach was applied for the identification of the DEGs in patients of intellectual disability disorder. Six intellectual disability datasets were retrieved from the GEO database of NCBI and were subjected to quality check, trimming, and alignment. Post-alignment, FeatureCounts was used to form a raw gene count file for differential analysis. The differentially expressed genes were analyzed using the EdgeR statistical package of R Studio. The genes which had an FDR p-value less than 0.05 and log2foldchange greater than 0 were considered upregulated and significantly expressed genes. The study found MTRNR2L1, PAPSS2, L1CAM, IGLV1-47, IGLV3-19, and IGKV1-16 genes to be upregulated in the patient sample. These genes can thus play an important role in the progression of intellectual disability disorder that facilitates early diagnosis of the disease. Full article