Solar, Volume 5, Issue 4 (December 2025) – 8 articles

This study investigates the efficacy of large language models (LLMs) in supporting responsible and optimized geographic site selection for large-scale solar energy farms. Using Microsoft Bing (predecessor to Copilot), Google Bard (predecessor to Gemini), and ChatGPT, we evaluated their capability to address complex technical and social considerations fundamental to solar farm development. Employing a series of guided queries, we explored the LLMs’ “understanding” of social impact, geographic suitability, and other critical factors. We tested varied prompts, incorporating context from existing research, to assess the models’ ability to use external knowledge sources. Our findings demonstrate that LLMs, when meticulously guided through increasingly detailed and contextualized inquiries, can yield valuable insights. We discovered that (1) structured questioning is key; (2) characterization outperforms suggestion; and (3) harnessing expert knowledge requires specific effort. However, limitations remain. We encountered dead ends due to prompt restrictions and limited access to research for some models. Additionally, none could independently suggest the “best” site. Overall, this study reveals the potential of LLMs for geographic solar farm site selection, and our results can inform future adaptation of geospatial AI queries for similarly complex geographic problems. Full article

Cr content χ of 0.4 at% for a Cr doped Nd (1 at%): YAG laser rod (LR) gave a higher laser output (I_output) than that of 0.0, 0.7, and 1.0 at% in a specially designed compact solar-pumped laser (SPL) outdoors. I_outputs were measured as a function of an 808 nm pumping laser’s power indoors, changing the transmittance of the output coupler. From the obtained slope efficiencies, round-trip resonator losses Ls for the four χs were estimated, and the best-fit function L(χ) was derived. From the experimentally estimated Cr-to-Nd effective energy transfer efficiency η_Cr→Nd at the four χs, the best-fit function η_Cr→Nd(χ) was derived. Using L(χ), η_Cr→Nd(χ), and a wavelength λ- and χ-dependent absorption coefficient α(λ, χ), inferred from the literature, the power conversion efficiency η_power(χ) under 1 Sun was estimated. The estimated η_power(0.4) and η_power(0.7) were reproduced in experimentally deduced factors at the mode-matching efficiency η_mode = 0.19. The estimated maximum η_power(χ) appeared around χ = 0.2 at%, being 20% higher than that at χ = 0.4 at%. In addition to this, a composite LR (Cr, Nd: YAG core/Gd: YAG cladding) was found to achieve η_mode = 0.68 and η_power = 0.064, ranking among the highest-class SPL η_powers. Full article

Solar panel deployment is vital to generate clean energy and reduce carbon emissions, but sustaining energy output requires regular monitoring and maintenance. This is particularly critical in countries with harsh environmental conditions, such as Qatar, where high dust density reduces solar radiation reaching panels, thereby lowering generating efficiency and increasing maintenance costs. This paper introduces a data-driven model that uses the relationship between generated and consumed energy to track changes in solar panel performance. By applying statistical analysis to real and simulated data, the model identifies when efficiency losses are within the parameters of normal variation (e.g., daily fluctuations) and when they are likely caused by dust accumulation or system ageing. The findings demonstrate that the model provides a reliable and cost-effective way to support timely cleaning and maintenance decisions. It offers decision-makers a practical tool to improve residential solar panel management, reducing unnecessary costs, and ensuring more consistent renewable energy generation. Full article

Nowadays, bifacial photovoltaic (PV) technology has emerged as a key solution to enhance the energy yield of large-scale PV plants, especially when integrated with sun-tracking systems. This study investigates the quantification of bifaciality productivity for two multi-MW PV plants in southern Italy (Sicily) equipped with monocrystalline silicon bifacial modules installed on single-axis east–west tracking systems and aligned in the north–south direction. An optimized energy model was developed at the stringbox level, employing a dedicated procedure including data filtering, clear-sky condition selection, and numerical estimation of bifaciality factors. The model was calibrated using on-field measurements acquired during the first operational months to minimize uncertainties related to degradation phenomena. The application of the model demonstrated that the rear-side contribution to the total energy output is non-negligible, resulting in additional energy gains of approximately 5.3% and 3% for the two plants, respectively. Full article

The accurate forecasting of solar power generation is becoming increasingly important in the context of renewable energy integration and intelligent energy management. The variability of solar radiation, caused by changing meteorological conditions and diurnal cycles, complicates the planning and control of photovoltaic systems and may lead to imbalances in supply and demand. This study aims to identify the most effective exponential smoothing approach for real-world PV power forecasting using actual hourly generation data from a 9 MW solar power plant in the Kyiv region, Ukraine. Four exponential smoothing techniques are analysed: Classic, a Modified classic adapted to daily generation patterns, Holt’s linear trend method, and the Holt–Winters seasonal method. The models were implemented in Microsoft Excel (Microsoft 365, version 2408) using real measurement data collected over six months. Forecasts were generated one hour ahead, and optimal smoothing constants were identified via RMSE minimisation using the Solver Add-in. Substantial differences in forecasting accuracy were observed. The Classic simple exponential smoothing model performed worst, with an RMSE of 1413.58 kW and nMAE of 9.22%. Holt’s method improved trend responsiveness (RMSE = 1052.79 kW, nMAE = 5.96%), but still lacked seasonality modelling. Holt–Winters, which incorporates both trend and seasonality, achieved a strong balance (RMSE = 1031.00 kW, nMAE = 3.7%). The best performance was observed with the modified simple exponential smoothing method, which captured the daily cycle more effectively (RMSE = 166.45 kW, nMAE = 0.84%). These results pertain to a one-step-ahead evaluation on a single plant and an extended validation window; accuracy is dependent on meteorological conditions, with larger errors during rapid cloud transi. The study identifies forecasting models that combine high accuracy with structural simplicity, intuitive implementation, and minimal parameter tuning—features that make them well-suited for integration into lightweight real-time energy control systems, despite not being evaluated in terms of runtime or memory usage. The modified simple exponential smoothing model, in particular, offers a high degree of precision and interpretability, supporting its integration into operational PV forecasting tools. Full article

The polder in this case study addresses several environmental issues, risk management concerns related to localities served by existing non-permanent dams, energy requirements that can meet a locality’s needs during the renewable energy transition, and their impacts on both rural and urban built environments. Cultural landscape preservation or solar regeneration on agricultural plots in Romania’s rural wetland areas focuses on traditionally inspired design, emphasising the technical versus humanistic approach as an optimal path through some inspiring “Dyads”. Briefly, the dyads are related to Bennett’s systematic approach to ensure the knowledge necessary for achieving understanding without experiencing it. With a two-way spiral, the defined methodology applies energy as solar photovoltaic technology to water-related natural aspects in the built environment without reducing or harming the relevant water management related to nature or built cultural heritage. The Solar Regeneration Monad “Nature -Energy- Built” is a holistic visual framework, replicable in any built environment for a “Built” regenerative culture, that enables the best solution to be identified for the conservation of cultural heritage values in an “Energy” transition context with “Nature”, biodiversity, or other water-related issues. Full article

The term SHIP (solar heat for industrial processes) or SHIPs (solar heat for industrial plants) refers to the use of collected solar radiation for meeting industrial heat demands, rather than for electricity generation. The global thermal capacity of SHIP systems at the end of 2024 stood slightly above 1 GWth, which is comparable to the electric power capacity of a single power station. Despite this relatively small presence, SHIP systems play an important role in rendering industrial processes sustainable. There are two aims in the current study. The first aim is to cover various types of SHIP systems based on the variety of their collector designs, operational temperatures, applications, radiation concentration options, and solar tracking options. SHIP designs can be as simple as unglazed solar collectors (USCs), having a stationary structure without any radiation concentration. On the other hand, SHIP designs can be as complicated as solar power towers (SPTs), having a two-axis solar tracking mechanism with point-focused concentration of the solar radiation. The second aim is to shed some light on the status of SHIP deployment globally, particularly in 2024. This includes a drop during the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings of the current study show that more than 1300 SHIP systems were commissioned worldwide by the end of 2024 (cumulative number), constituting a cumulative thermal capacity of 1071.4 MWth, with a total collector area of 1,531,600 m². In 2024 alone, 120.3 MWth of thermal capacity was introduced in 106 SHIP systems having a total collector area of 171,874 m². In 2024, 65.9% of the installed global thermal capacity of SHIP systems belonged to the parabolic trough collectors (PTCs), and another 22% of this installed global thermal capacity was attributed to the unevacuated flat plate collectors (FPC-Us). Considering the 106 SHIP systems installed in 2024, the average collector area per system was 1621.4 m²/project. However, this area largely depends on the SHIP category, where it is much higher for parabolic trough collectors (37,740.5 m²/project) but lower for flat plate collectors (805.2 m²/project), and it is lowest for unglazed solar collectors (163.0 m²/project). The study anticipates large deployment in SHIP systems (particularly the PTC type) in 2026 in alignment with gigascale solar-steam utilization in alumina production. Several recommendations are provided with regard to the SHIP sector. Full article

The optimal utilization of UAV-integrated photovoltaic (PV) systems demands accurate modeling that accounts for dynamic flight conditions. This paper introduces a novel computational intelligence-based framework that models the behavior of a moving PV system mounted on a UAV. A unique mathematical approach is developed to translate UAV flight dynamics, specifically roll, pitch, and yaw, into the tilt and azimuth angles of the PV module. To adaptively estimate the diode ideality factor under varying conditions, the Grey Wolf Optimization (GWO) algorithm is employed, outperforming traditional methods like Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO). Using a one-year environmental dataset, multiple machine learning (ML) models are trained to predict maximum power point (MPP) parameters for a commercial PV panel. The best-performing model, Rational Quadratic Gaussian Process Regression (RQGPR), demonstrates high accuracy and low computational cost. Furthermore, the proposed ML-based model is experimentally integrated into an incremental conductance (IC) MPPT technique, forming a hybrid MPPT controller. Hardware and experimental validations confirm the model’s effectiveness in real-time MPP prediction and tracking, highlighting its potential for enhancing UAV endurance and energy efficiency. Full article